A
Address lists
checking programs and, 194-195; see
also Advance Post Office Check;
Casing and Time of Delivery
Checks; Post-Enumeration Post
Office Check; Precanvass; Prelist;
Update list/leave enumeration
procedure
development of, for 1980 census, 78-80
Adjustment of census figures, 24-28, 245-281
and carrying down to small areas, 26, 27, 28, 102, 256, 261, 266, 268-271, 273, 275-276
and combining estimates from different programs, 266
and error estimates, 9, 24-28, 44, 246, 257-258
factors affecting, 25-26, 249-251
fast matching algorithms in, 291-292
and fund allocations, 8, 12, 14, 17, 25, 32, 38, 41, 43, 44-45, 57-60, 248-250, 294
hierarchical Bayesian method in, 256-257, 267-268, 279-280
and impact of census errors, 25, 28, 43, 44, 46, 48, 57-60
imputation in, 26-27, 245, 261, 266, 270, 273
and internal consistency of census figures, 26-27, 107, 259-262
and iterative proportional fitting, 84, 85, 102-103, 261, 268, 269-270
and loss functions, 25-26, 249-255, 257-259, 272-273, 277-278
and modification of estimates within one program, 267-268
protection against extreme adjustments, 256-257, 270-271
recommendations for, 25, 26-28, 247-248, 251, 255, 259, 262, 263-264, 274, 276
regression techniques in, 243, 267-268, 270-271, 273, 275, 280
research and testing of plans for, 16, 27, 45, 77, 93, 253-255, 271-276
synthetic estimation in, 25, 45, 58, 59, 103, 107, 254-255, 257, 258, 268-269, 270-271, 273, 275, 281
time constraints in, 48, 137, 262-264, 306
and use of domains, 267-268, 270, 275
weighting in, 247, 251-252, 253, 261, 265-266, 267-268, 269, 271, 278, 279-280
Administrative records, 9, 13, 132-136, 144-148, 283
for content collection and improvement, 35, 91-92, 93-94, 216, 232-235
from driver’s license records, 9, 83, 116, 144, 175-176, 287
effectiveness of, 35-36, 149-150, 194-195
for hard-to-count groups, 92, 287-288
for housing items, 16, 24, 35-36, 90, 98, 234-235, 242-243
from Immigration and Naturalization Service records, 113, 175-176, 287, 314
from Internal Revenue Service records, 35, 91, 132-133, 144, 287
matched to census data, 9, 10, 19, 83, 107, 108, 116, 132-136, 144-148, 149-150, 287-288
from Medicare records, 35, 107, 116, 132, 144
in New York City case, 83, 134-136, 146, 175-176
in Nonhousehold Sources Program, 83, 172, 175-176, 177, 178, 194-195, 223
recommendations for, 24, 233-234
research plans for, 24, 91-92, 287-288
for small areas, 35
from Social Security records, 35, 91, 112, 144
in test program for 1990, 178
from welfare records, 83, 175-176
Advance Post Office Check
in census of 1970, 165, 166, 169, 174
in census of 1980, 80, 171-174
in test program for 1990, 178
See also Address lists
Age category, undercounts in, 8, 45, 112, 118, 119-120, 156, 157, 161-163, 199, 202, 209-210, 245, 261, 266, 275, 293-294, 316
Aliens; see Immigrants
American Housing Survey, 35, 74
American Statistical Association, 5, 11
review of 1980 census coverage plans, 12-13
Apportionment of congressional seats; see Reapportionment
Area samples, in post-enumeration surveys, 109-110, 111-112
Assumption of independence, in dual-system estimation, 121-122, 134, 138, 141, 146, 148, 302, 304-306
Australia, census procedures in, 88
Automation technologies, 134, 151, 224, 306, 307-308
and computer editing of census data, 84-85
testing of, 91-92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 178, 195
B
Basic counts for small areas, 34-38
Bayesian hierarchical method, in adjustments, 256-257, 267-268, 279-280
Benchmarking, and combining information from different programs, 36, 220-221, 266, 286, 295, 296
Bias
and error estimates, 257, 258, 259, 273, 292
See also Correlation bias; Dual-system estimation; Independence, assumption of
Birth registration records, 142, 186, 187, 290, 294
completeness of, 117, 118-119, 120, 121, 130, 132, 142, 293
Black population; see Race, coverage errors in and estimates of; Race and ethnicity questions
Blocking, and matching process, 150-151, 275, 301, 303
Business planning uses
of basic counts for small areas, 37
of characteristics data in, 39-40
C
Canada, 7-8
reverse record checks in, 29, 108, 112, 114-115, 140, 159, 265, 283-284, 291, 295
tracing methods in, 140, 288, 296
Capture-recapture methodology; see Dual-system estimation
Casing and Time of Delivery Checks
in census of 1970, 165-168, 169
in census of 1980, 80, 172, 174
in test program for 1990, 178
Casual Count
operation in 1980, 83, 172, 175, 176
in test program for 1990, 98, 178, 195
See also Missed persons campaign in 1970
Census of 1920, race and ethnicity questions in, 181
Census of 1930, 118
race and ethnicity questions in, 181
Census of 1940
demographic analysis in, 109, 118-119
race and ethnicity questions in, 181, 182
sampling for content in, 215, 227
Census of 1950, 86
coverage evaluation in, 109-111
demographic analysis in, 118-119, 155
housing coverage in, 163-164, 212
overenumerations in, 212
and post-enumeration surveys, 86, 109-111, 115, 161, 163-164, 204-209, 212
race and ethnicity questions in, 181
sampling for content in, 228
undercounts in, 112, 154, 155, 161, 163-165, 203-209
Census of 1960, 86-87
coverage evaluation in, 111-116
demographic analysis in, 119-120, 155, 161-163
housing coverage in, 213-214
matched to Current Population Survey, 204-205
overenumerations in, 212
and post-enumeration surveys, 111-112, 212, 204-209
race and ethnicity questions in, 181
record check studies in, 112
reverse record check in, 112-114
sampling for content in, 228
undercounts in, 154, 155, 161-163, 164-165, 204-209
coverage evaluation in, 106, 107, 108, 115-116, 117-118, 120-121, 137, 284
coverage improvement
programs in, 83-84, 87, 164-170, 174, 226, 227
cost and effectiveness of, 98, 137, 166, 168-169, 171, 175, 176, 227
demographic analysis in, 117-118, 120-121, 155, 161-163, 212, 284, 294
gross omissions in, 116, 213-214
gross overenumerations in, 212
housing coverage in, 83, 106, 164, 169-170, 174, 187-189, 213-214, 226
matched to Current Population Survey, 108, 115-116, 209, 212
race and ethnicity questions in, 180, 181, 182, 185, 187
record check studies in, 116
sampling for content in, 194, 227, 228, 230-231
undercounts in, 8, 48, 59, 121, 154, 155, 161-163, 209, 226, 284, 294, 305
Census of 1980
address list development in, 78-80
coverage improvement
programs in, 82-84, 171-177, 188-189
cost and effectiveness of, 176-177, 189
data processing in, 84-85
demographic analysis in, 85, 129-132, 142, 155-160, 157, 284
enumeration in, 80-81
and formation of 12 estimates of undercoverage, 126-129
hard-to-count groups in, 154-161
housing coverage in, 78-79, 213, 214
matched to Current Population Survey, 108, 123-128, 197, 198, 202
matching with Internal Revenue Service records, 78-86, 160-161, 202-203
methodology in, 77-86
overenumerations in, 154, 210-212
and Post-Enumeration Program, 85-86, 108, 121-129, 197-198; see also Post-Enumeration Program in census of 1980
recommendation for review of data in 1990 census planning, 18, 99
sampling for content in, 228
undercount in, 154, 156-161, 197-203
Census of 1990
administrative records in, 178
automation technologies in, 307-308
demographic analysis in, 266, 284, 293-295
evaluation programs for, 283-317
and Post-Enumeration Program, 297-308
and pre-enumeration survey, 306-307
reverse record check in, 295-297
time factors in, 306
and variance estimation in matching process, 308
Central cities, undercounts in; see Urban areas
Characteristics data
for comparative studies, 39-41
restrictions on, 40-41
for small areas and subgroups, 38-42
Compact area cluster samples, in post-enumeration surveys, 95, 289-290, 299
Comparative studies
analysis of data across time periods, 42
characteristics data in, 39-41
Composite list formation, 108, 133-134, 141, 283, 287
in New York City case, 134-136, 146
Comprehensive Employment and Training Act, fund allocations for, 60
Computer use; see Automation technologies
Congressional representation, and need for census data; see Reapportionment
Consistency of data, adjustments affecting, 26-27, 107, 259-262
accuracy improvement with administrative records, 35, 91-92, 93-94, 153, 216, 232-235
decisions for inclusion of, 41-42, 180-193, 228-229, 230-231
errors in, 41, 44-45, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 117, 153, 233-234
problems with, 16, 185, 233-234
sampling for, 91, 110, 115-116, 194, 215-216, 217-218, 227-235
Conventional enumeration, 79, 81, 82-83, 87, 88-89, 93, 159, 160, 168, 170, 174, 175, 178-179, 199, 201, 211-212, 213, 214, 280
See also Post-Enumeration Post Office Check
Cooperation with census programs, 83-84, 165, 171, 220, 250, 300
pre-enumeration survey affecting, 307
Correlation bias, 111, 122, 146
See also Dual-system estimation; Independence, assumption of
Costs
of census of 1980, 7, 176-177, 189
of coverage evaluations, 137
of coverage improvement programs, 15, 19-20, 166-169, 171-176, 194
and efficacy of programs, 15, 168-169, 171, 174-177, 189
programs for reduction of, 9, 15, 153, 221-226, 236-238, 240
sampling affecting, 7, 9, 13, 15-16, 153, 170, 175, 217, 218-219, 221-226, 236-238
of systematic observation, 317
County data and estimates, errors in, 61-62
See also Adjustment of census figures; Small-area data and estimates
Coverage
errors in, 105-106; see also Errors
evaluation of, 105-152; see also Evaluation programs
improvement measures for; see Improvement programs
and need for mid-decade census, 14, 17, 42
review of problems in, 11-14
and role of estimation, 9-10
in sample census, 220-221
See also Overcount; Undercount
Coverage Questions and Dependent Roster Check, 82, 172-173, 175, 178
Criticisms of censuses, 5
Cross-product ratio, 146
See also Correlation bias; DuaI-system estimation; Independence, assumption of
Cross-tabulation of data, and confidentiality considerations, 39, 41, 84
Current Population Survey, 35
matching to 1960 census, 204-205
matching to 1970 census, 108, 115-116, 209, 212
matching to 1980 census, 108, 123-128, 197, 198, 202
use for 1990 census, 306-307
D
Data processing, for census of 1980, 84-85
See also Imputation; Iterative proportional fitting
Death registration records, 117, 119, 130, 186, 187, 193
completeness of, 29, 42, 131, 142, 294
Demographic analysis, 29-30, 107, 117-121
in census of 1950, 118-119, 155
in census of 1960, 119-120, 155, 161-163
in census of 1970, 117-118, 120-121, 155, 161-163, 212, 284, 294
in census of 1980, 85, 129-132, 142, 155-160, 157, 284
and estimates of net undercount, 112, 114, 116, 118, 120, 121, 154, 155, 156, 157, 161-163, 186, 212, 284
plans for 1990 census, 266, 284, 293-295
of population over age 65, 131
of population under age 65, 130-131
prior to 1950, 118
problem areas in, 10, 114, 117, 131-132, 156, 161, 163, 265, 284, 294
See also Immigrants; Medicare data
Denmark, census procedures in, 90-91
Differential coverage errors; see Errors; Overcount; Undercount
Direct estimate coverage
estimation programs, 106-107, 138, 139-141, 296, 313-314
Driver’s license records; see Administrative records
Dual-system estimation, 116, 121-129, 132, 141, 144-146, 298, 299
and inclusion probabilities, 145, 304-305
stratification in, 122-123, 146, 302-305
See also Correlation bias; Independence, assumption of
Duplications in the census; see Overcount
E
E Sample; see Evaluation programs
Education programs, fund allocations for, 33, 39, 51-52, 67-68
Educational status, and gross omission rates, 205-206, 207
Emigration, estimates of, 114, 117, 121, 131, 142, 293, 294, 295, 296
Employment, 60
equal opportunity programs for, and state uses of census data, 43, 66-67, 69, 74-75, 263
Employment status, and gross omission rates, 163, 206, 208, 209
Enumeration process, in census of 1980, 80-81
Errors
and adjustment of counts, 9, 10, 24-28, 44, 246, 257-258
in census of 1980, 8, 38, 46, 47, 48-49, 61
in content, 41, 44-45, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 117, 153, 233-234
in county population estimates for 1980, 61-62
in coverage, 19, 25, 38, 44, 45-47, 48, 57, 60, 65-66, 105-106, 110-111, 117, 119; see also Overcount; Undercount
criticisms of, 5
estimations of, 26, 107, 119, 124, 257-259
and evaluation of coverage, 105-152; see also Evaluation programs
factors in, 19
in hard-to-count groups, 21, 67
impact of, 8, 14, 17, 25, 38, 43-60, 65-66, 67
in income reporting, 41, 58-59, 67, 233
and profiles for coverage evaluation methods, 136-137, 138-143
in sampling, 216-217
in subcounty population estimates for 1980, 61, 62, 63
Estimation
compared with coverage improvement, 9-10
dual-system; see Dual-system estimation
errors affecting, 60-64
multiple list methods in, 132-134, 144-148
synthetic, 25, 45, 58, 59, 103, 107, 254-255, 257, 258, 268-269, 270-271, 273, 275, 281
Ethnicity; see Race and ethnicity questions
Evaluation programs, 10, 105-152
administrative records used in, 132-136, 283
in census of 1950, 109-111
in census of 1960, 111-116
in census of 1970, 106, 107, 108, 115-116, 117-118, 120-121, 137, 284
composite list formation, 108, 132-134, 146
cost of, 137
criteria for, 25
Current Population Survey samples in; see Current Population Survey
demographic analysis in, 118-121, 284
direct estimates in, 139-141
E sample in, 107, 108, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 141, 210, 212, 214, 298, 299, 302-303
error profile for methods in, 136-137, 138-143
and formation of 12 estimates of undercoverage in 1980, 126-129
and independent estimates for population groups, 116-117
macro-level methods in, 19, 107, 109
prior to 1980, 116-121
methods of, 107-109
micro-level methods in, 19, 107-108, 109-116, 137
multilist methods, 133-134, 147-148
multiple list estimation methods in, 132-134, 144-152
need for, 13
P sample in, 107-108, 109, 121, 123-124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 139-140, 141, 197, 199, 298, 299, 300, 302-303
and Post-Enumeration Program in census of 1980, 85-86, 108, 121-129, 197-198
post-enumeration surveys in, 28-30, 108; see also Post-enumeration surveys
prior to 1980, 109-121
recommendations for 1990 census, 28-30, 283-317
assessment of methods in, 283-285
and balancing of undercount with overcount, 302-304
demographic analysis in, 293-295
and improvements in Post-Enumeration Program, 299-308
and inclusion probabilities for two lists, 304-306
level of nonresponses in, 299-300
percentage of unresolved matches in, 308
and position paper by Wolter, 272-273, 289-283
pretest plans in, 285-293
reverse record check in, 295-297
resident observation in, 310
systematic observation in, 310-312
time factors in, 306-308
and variance estimation in matching process for, 308
record check studies in; see Administrative records
research on, 16
reverse record checks in; see Reverse record checks
timing considerations in, 137, 306-308
F
Focus group method
for development of coverage improvement procedures, 22, 190, 195-196, 312
for development of questions, 20, 98, 185-186
Follow-on survey considered for 1990 census, 16, 23, 94, 216, 229-230
one-form census with, 231
Follow-up procedures, 94, 82-84
sampling in, 15-16, 22-23, 221-225, 301-302
telephone use in, 2-3, 22-23, 81, 94, 225
Forward Trace Study, 30, 140, 288, 290, 296-297
See also Reverse record checks
Fractional matching, 301-302
France, census procedures in, 88-89
Fund allocations
and adjustments for income and population, 8, 12, 14, 17, 25, 32, 41, 43, 44-45, 57-60, 248-250, 294
characteristics data in, 38
for education, 33, 39, 51-52, 67-68
for employment and training, 52, 171
errors in count affecting, 38, 49-60
formula-based programs in, 49-60
for housing, 53-54
and income reporting errors, 41, 58-59, 67, 233
loss functions affecting, 248-250, 253-254
and need for census data, 6, 12, 33, 36, 66
for public assistance, 54
for recreation, 54
for revenue sharing, 53
for social services, 54-55
for transportation, 56
G
Geocoding, 48, 94, 124, 126, 298, 299, 300, 303
Geographic regions
gross omissions in, 208-209
and housing coverage omissions, 213
Germany, census procedures in, 89
Government planning uses of characteristics data, 39
Government uses for census data, 6-7
by federal government, 51-56, 67
by local governments, 68-69
by states, 66-68
Grant programs, data needed for, 36
See also Fund allocations
Great Britain, census procedures in, 88
Gross omissions; see Undercount
Gross overenumerations; see Overcount
H
Hard-to-count groups, 154-164, 207-208
experience in 1980, 154-161, 171
experience from previous censuses, 161-163, 212
focus groups in, 22, 185-186, 195, 196
and procedures to improve coverage, 21, 29, 83-84, 153, 165, 171, 190-192, 203, 215
proposals for, 21, 191-192, 195, 231
research on, 92, 94, 179, 287-288
Health Interview Survey, 35, 36, 120, 209
Hierarchical Bayesian method in adjustments, 256-257, 267-268, 279-280
Hispanics; see Race, coverage errors in and estimates of; Race and ethnicity questions
Historical aspects of censuses, 1-2
in centennial census of 1890, 2, 3
and criticisms of data, 5
in first census of 1790, 2, 109
review from 1950 to 1980, 17-18
and uses of data, 33
Hot-deck imputation, sequential; see Imputation
in census of 1970, 83, 106, 164, 169-170, 174, 187-189, 213-214, 226
in census of 1980, 78-79, 213, 214
and children living elsewhere, 21, 96, 108, 189, 191, 192
gross omission rates in, 212-214
and mail delivery problems in multiunit structures, 94, 159, 179, 195
in program for 1990, 178
resident observer studies in, 163, 183, 209-210, 310
Household relationships
and gross overenumerations, 210-211
Housing, fund allocations for, 53-54
Housing structure data
and data from administrative records, 16, 24, 35-36, 90, 98, 234-235, 242-243
recommendations for improvement in, 242-243
I
Immigrants, 40
illegal, estimates of, 29, 113, 114, 117, 122, 129-130, 131-132, 139, 142, 154, 155-156, 199, 264-265, 284, 294, 296, 304, 313-316
legal, records of, 29, 108, 113, 117, 130-131, 293
Improvement programs, 19-22, 93-94, 153-214
for accuracy of count, 24
in census of 1970, 83-84, 87, 164-170, 174, 226, 227
costs and effectiveness of, 98, 137, 166, 168-169, 171, 175, 176, 227
in census of 1980, 82-84, 171-177, 188-189
costs and effectiveness of, 176-177, 189
for children not part of household, 189, 191, 192
costs of, 15, 19-20, 166-169, 171-176, 194
for hard-to-count groups, 21, 29, 83-84, 153, 165, 171, 190-192, 203, 215
for household roster, 21, 82, 175, 178, 187-188, 189, 190, 194
for movers or groups with second homes, 111, 127-128, 168, 170, 189, 217
need for, 13
and needed research on undercount and overcount, 21, 179-180
priorities for research and testing in, 193-194
proposals for, 9-11
race and ethnicity information in, 180-187
recommendations for 1990, 177-179, 193-196
and resident observer studies, 209-210
sampling in, 225-227
recommendations for 1990, 226
Imputation
and adjustments, 26-27, 245, 261, 266, 270, 273
multiple, 101
sequential hot-deck, 18-19, 84-85, 100-101, 136
Inclusion probabilities for two lists, 304-306
Income
and fund allocations, 31, 41, 44-45, 51, 53, 54, 57-60, 67, 219, 228, 233, 248-250, 294
and gross omission rates, 202-204, 206-208, 209
reporting errors, 24, 41, 43, 58-59, 67, 233
Independence, assumption of, 121-122, 134, 138, 141, 146, 148, 302, 304-306
See also Correlation bias; Dual-system estimation
Independent estimates for population groups, 116-117
Independent observers, use of, 29
See also Systematic observation
Independent surveys, 289, 290, 303
matched to census data, 108
Indian reservations, coverage of, 93
Infant Enumeration Study, 119
Internal Revenue Service records, 35-36
matching with census of 1980, 78-86, 160-161, 202-203
Iterative proportional fitting, 84, 85, 102-103, 268, 269-270
and consistency of data, 261
See also Adjustment of census figures
J
Jersey City, census pretest in, 92, 96
K
“K” parameter; see Correlation bias; Dual-system estimation; Independence, assumption of
L
Legal aspects
of data for reapportionment and redistricting, 27, 36
of deadlines for census data, 27, 262
of mid-decade census, 49
of race and ethnicity questions, 180
of sampling, 218
List samples, in post-enumeration surveys, 95, 109-110, 111-112
Local agency uses of census data, 68-69
Local area data and estimates; see Small-area data and estimates
Local lists, use of, 108-109, 141
Local review of preliminary data for 1980, 83, 93-94, 108-109, 172, 174-175, 176, 178
Long-form/short-form questionnaires, 228-229
alternatives to, 230-231
experience with short form, 16, 21, 228
related data in, 84-85, 102-103
Loss functions, and adjustment procedures, 25-26, 249-255, 257-259, 272-273, 277-278
relative squared error in, 252
squared relative error in, 252
M
Macro-level coverage evaluation, 19, 107, 109, 116-121
Mail delivery problems, in multiunit structures, 94, 159, 179, 195
Mail nonreturn rates, 159, 200-202
Mailing lists, use of, 4, 78-79, 80, 174, 176
Mailout-mailback enumeration, 3, 80, 178
coverage errors in, 160, 199-200, 214
use in 1980, 78, 80-81, 173-174
Maryland, fund allocations in, 58-59, 60
Matching, 141
of administrative records to census data, 9, 10, 19, 83, 107, 108, 116, 132-136, 144-148, 149-150, 287-288
automated procedures in, 149, 307-308
blocking used in, 150-151, 275, 301, 303
of Current Population Survey to census records; see Current Population Survey
fractional, 301-302
general algorithm of, 150
of independent surveys to census data, 108
mathematical model for, 151-152, 301
operational difficulties of, 149-150
three-way match with Census/CPS/IRS, 292
variable selection in, 151
variance estimation in, 308
Medicare data, 131
for demographic estimates of elderly population, 117, 120, 131, 137
for estimates of elderly population, 108, 120, 121, 130, 132, 142, 293
matched to 1970 census records, 116
Merging of lists; see Composite list formation
Methodology
in Australia, 88
balance of procedures in, 14-15
in census of 1950, 86
in census of 1960, 86-87
in census of 1970, 87
in census of 1980, 77-86
in coverage evaluation, 107-109
in coverage improvement, 153-214
in Denmark, 90-91
in France, 88-89
in Germany, 89
in Great Britain, 88
independent reviews of, 11-14
in Netherlands, 89
and plans for 1990, 9-11
and review of pretest plans, 96-99
in Sweden, 89-90
Micro-level coverage evaluation, 19, 107-108, 109-116, 137
Mid-decade census
advantages of, 63-64
legal aspects of, 49
Missed persons campaign in 1970, 166, 168, 175
See also Casual Count
Movers, 189
effectiveness of, 170
proposed coverage of, 189-190
Multilist methods, 133-134, 147-148
Multiple list estimation methods, 132-134, 144-148
composite lists in, 108, 133-134, 146-147
covariate information in, 148
dual system; see Dual-system estimation
hazards of, 148
multilists in, 147-148
Multiplicity surveys, 108, 190, 192-193, 195, 295
N
National Content Test of 1976, 185
planned for 1986, 98
National Research Council Advisory Committee on Problems of Census Enumeration, 11-12, 309
National Research Council Panel on Decennial Census Plans, 12
National Vacancy Check of 1970, 87, 106, 116, 166-167, 168, 170, 177, 226
effectiveness of, 169
See also Vacant/Delete Check
Native-American enumeration techniques, 93, 184
Net coverage errors; see Overcount; Undercount
Netherlands, census procedures in, 89
Network coverage improvement questions, 108, 190-191
New Jersey
fund allocations in, 58-59, 74-75
Jersey City census pretest, 92, 96
New York City
administrative records used in 1980, 83, 134-136, 146, 175-176
protest of 1980 census, 108-109, 134-136, 146
Nonhousehold Sources Program; see Administrative records
Nonresponses
and unresolved matches, 30, 126, 127, 139-140
O
Oakland pretest in 1977, 108, 190-191
Omissions of data; see Undercount
One-form census with follow-on survey, 231
Overcount, 210-212
balancing with undercount, 141, 302-304
in census of 1980, 8, 154, 210-212
findings from earlier censuses, 212
findings from Post-Enumeration Program of 1980, 160, 212
research needed on, 179-180
sources of, 124
P
P Sample; see Evaluation programs
Participant observer studies; see Resident observer studies; Systematic observation
Planning cycle for 1990 census, 3-5, 97-98, 99
Postal Service checking of address lists
in census of 1970, 106, 116, 166, 226
effectiveness of, 170
in census of 1980, 174
Postcensal estimates, errors affecting, 60-64
Post-Enumeration Post Office Check
in 1970, 87, 106, 116, 166, 168, 170, 213, 226
in 1980, 83, 172, 174, 178-179
Post-Enumeration Program in census of 1980, 85-86, 108, 121-129
blocking in, 150-151
cost of, 137
gross omissions in, 156-159, 197-198
gross overenumerations in, 159-160, 210-212
matching with Current Population Survey, 108, 123-128, 197, 198, 202, 298
P sample in, 108, 123-124, 298-299
possible improvements in, 299-308
problem areas in, 264-265
procedures in, 298-299
and state population estimates, 46-47
Post-Enumeration Program planned for 1990, 297-308
Post-enumeration surveys, 28-30, 108
in census of 1950, 86, 109-111, 115, 161, 163-164, 204-209, 212
in census of 1960, 111-112, 212, 204-209
pretest in 1985, 285-286
See also Area samples, in post-
enumeration surveys; Compact area cluster samples, in post-enumeration surveys; List samples, in post-enumeration surveys; Pre-enumeration surveys
Precanvass
in census of 1980, 80, 171-174, 176
in test program for 1990, 178
Pre-enumeration surveys, 28, 29, 93, 85, 202, 272, 306-307
Preferred estimates of undercounts, 119, 120, 129
Prelist
enumeration areas in 1970, 165, 168, 174
enumeration areas in 1980, 79, 80, 93, 214
recanvass in 1980, 83, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178
Pretests
in Oakland in 1977, 108, 190-191
plans for 1985, 4, 92, 96-99, 192-193, 224, 225, 285-286
plans for 1986, 4, 21, 22, 28, 92, 93-95, 97-99, 177-179, 190, 191, 193, 196, 216, 221, 224, 225, 226, 230, 271-272, 274, 307
plans for 1990, 92-93, 179, 194, 271-272, 285-293, 310
in Tampa in 1985, 92, 96, 186, 285-286
Public assistance, fund allocations for, 54
Public cooperation with census, 83-84, 165, 171, 220, 250, 300
pre-enumeration survey affecting, 307
Public planning uses
of basic counts for small areas, 17, 36-37
of census data in, 33
Purposes or uses of census, 2, 6-7, 17, 31-75
and basic counts for small areas, 17, 34-38
and changes in time periods, 27, 42
characteristics data in, 38-41
distinguishing features of, 34-42
by federal government, 51-56
historical uses in, 33
and impact of errors, 43-64
by local agencies, 68-69
reassessment of, 37-38
Q
Questionnaire design and content, 40, 41, 94, 180-193, 227-233
See also Content items; Short-form/long-form questionnaires
R
Race, coverage errors in and estimates of, 8, 45-46, 57, 59, 60, 110, 118-121, 131-132, 154-164, 197-203, 207, 208-209
Race and ethnicity questions, 180-187
comparability of data from, 20-21, 186-187
considerations for 1990, 20, 180-181, 182-185
development of, 185-186
in earlier censuses, 2, 5, 181
and focus group methods, 185-186, 195-196
and mail nonreturn rates, 159, 200-202
and overenumeration rates, 160, 210-211
prescribed categories in, 181-182
problems with, 294
and undercount rates, 45-46, 155-157
Raking ratio estimation, 103
See also Iterative proportional fitting
Reapportionment
errors affecting, 8, 38, 42, 43-47
loss functions affecting, 250, 253-254
and need for census data, 5-6, 8
Record checks
administrative records in; see Administrative records
reverse; see Reverse record checks
Record linkage for automated matching, 91-92, 151-152
Recreation, fund allocations for, 54
Redistricting
errors affecting, 47-49
and state uses of census data, 66
Refusals for interviews, rate of, 125, 126, 225, 299-300
Regions, undercounts in, 110, 158-159, 199-200, 208-209, 213-214
Regression techniques in adjustments, 243, 267-268, 270-271, 273, 275, 280
Representation in Congress and need for census data; see Reapportionment
Research
on adjustments, 16, 27, 45, 77, 93, 253-255, 271-276
on coverage evaluation, 16
on coverage improvement programs, 193-194
on hard-to-count groups, 92, 94, 179, 287-288
on impact of errors, 43-60
on loss functions and adjustment, 253-255
priorities for 1986, 18, 96-99, 193-196
on responses to content items, 233-234
and review of pretest plans, 97-99
on sampling, 224-225
testing schedule in, 3-4, 95-96
on undercount and overcount, 21, 179-180
Residence rules, 92
Resident observer studies, 163, 183, 209-210, 310
See also Systematic observation
Revenue sharing, fund allocations for, 31, 36, 41, 51, 53, 57-59, 60, 66, 107, 219, 228, 233, 250, 251, 254, 273
Reverse record checks, 29, 108
in Canada, 108, 112, 114-115, 140, 159, 265, 283-284, 291, 295
in census of 1960, 112-114
plans for 1990 census, 295-297
problems with, 290-291
Reviews of census plans by independent sources, 11-14
Rural areas
enumeration procedures, 3, 83, 87, 92, 93, 178, 267
gross omissions in, 110, 208-209, 213
housing coverage studies in, 192, 213, 214
S
Sampling procedures, 9, 13, 15-16, 22-24, 215-243
for census enumeration, 215-221
for content items, 91, 110, 115-116, 194, 215-216, 217-218, 227-235
costs of, 7, 9, 13, 15-16, 153, 170, 175, 217, 218-219, 221-226, 236-238
coverage deficiency in, 219-221
for coverage improvement, 9, 13, 15-16, 225-227
recommendations for 1990, 226, 230
errors in, 216-217
in follow-up studies, 13, 15-16, 22-23, 221-225, 301-302
recommendations for, 22-23, 221, 224-225, 227
and reduction of respondent burden, 217-218
research on, 15, 91, 219, 224-225
and time required for field work, 217
for unresolved cases, 302
See also Post-enumeration surveys
Second-home groups, proposed coverage of, 189-190
Sequential hot-deck imputation, 18-19, 84-85, 100-101, 136
Sex category, undercounts in, 8, 45, 112, 118, 119-120, 155-156, 157, 160, 161, 203, 206, 207, 208, 245, 266, 275, 294, 309, 316
Short-form/long-form questionnaires, 228-229
alternatives to, 230-231
experience with short form, 16, 21, 228
related data in, 84-85, 102-103
Small-area data and estimates
adjustment in, 26, 27, 28, 102, 256, 261, 266, 268-271, 273, 275-276
administrative records in, 35
characteristics data in, 38-42
comparison and ranking of, 36, 37, 39-41
sampling affecting, 35, 219-220, 221
See also County data and estimates; State data and estimates
Social Security Administration records, 35, 91, 112, 144
Social services, fund allocations for, 54-55
Socioeconomic research uses of characteristics data, 40
Standard metropolitan statistical areas, undercounts in; see Urban areas
State data and estimates, 8, 45-47, 61, 32, 253-254, 262-263, 267, 268, 277-278, 284, 285, 294
See also Adjustment of census figures; Small-area data and estimates
State government uses of census data, 65-68
and case study of data use in New Jersey, 60, 70-75
for classification of local governments, 65-66
for equal employment opportunity programs, 43, 66-67, 69, 74-75, 263
for fund allocations, 66
for implementation of federal programs, 67
for planning purposes, 67-68
for redistricting, 65
Stratification in dual-system estimation, 122-123, 146, 302-305
Subcounty population estimates for 1980, errors in, 61, 62, 63
Subgroup characteristics data, 38-42
Subject items; see Content items
Supplemental forms operation in 1970, 166-167
Sweden, census procedures in, 89-90
Synthetic estimation, and adjustments, 25, 45, 58, 59, 103, 107, 254-255, 257, 258, 268-269, 270-271, 273, 275, 281
Systematic observation, 310-312
variance and cost estimates for, 317
T
Tampa pretest in 1985, 92, 96, 186, 285-286
Tape Address Register Enumeration Areas
Telephone follow-up procedures, 2-3, 22-23, 81, 94, 225
Testing programs; see Pretests
Time-series character of census, 27, 42
Timing considerations
in adjustments, 48, 137, 262-264, 306
in automation, 307-308
in coverage evaluation, 137, 306-308
in pre-enumeration surveys, 306-307
in sampling, 217
Tracing methods, in Forward Trace Study, 30, 140, 288, 290, 296-297
Transportation, fund allocations for, 56
Triple-system estimation, 287, 305
Two-stage enumeration procedure
use in 1960 census, 86
U
Undercount
balance with overcount, 141, 302-304
in census of 1980, 154, 156-161, 197-203
and coverage evaluation, 105-152; see also Evaluation programs
findings from previous censuses, 8, 48, 59, 112, 121, 154, 155, 161-163, 164-165, 203-209, 226, 284, 294, 305
and fund allocations, 59-60
gross omissions in, 197-210
in housing coverage studies, 212-214
and reapportionment, 45-47
research needed on, 21, 179-180
and values assigned to missing responses, 18-19
Update list/leave enumeration procedure, 81, 91, 94, 179, 195
Urban areas
housing coverage studies in, 213-214
undercounts in, 110, 139, 199-202, 208-209
Uses for census data; see Purposes or uses of census
V
Vacant/Delete Check
in census of 1980, 82-83, 172-173, 174, 223
effectiveness of, 172-173, 174, 175, 177, 226, 227
and recommended use of sampling, 23, 177, 178, 194, 216, 226, 227, 239-240
See also National Vacancy Check of 1970
Variance estimation, 258-259, 317
in matching process, 308
Vital statistics records, 36
birth registration, 117, 118-119, 120, 121, 130, 132, 142, 186, 187, 290, 293, 294
death records, 29, 42, 117, 119, 130, 131, 142, 186, 187, 193, 294
W
Weighting
and adjustments, 247, 251-252, 253, 261, 265-266, 267-268, 269, 271, 278, 279-280
of long-form records, iterative proportional fitting in, 84, 102-103
Were You Counted program, 83, 168, 172-173, 176, 194
See also Supplemental forms operation in 1970
Whole Household Usual Home Elsewhere Program, 82, 176, 177, 178, 190
Wolter paper on coverage evaluation and adjustment, 95, 271-273, 276, 289-293, 300, 306
