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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Research Council. 1993. Alternative Technologies for the Destruction of Chemical Agents and Munitions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/2218.
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INDEX 311 Index A in thermal treatment, 97-98 Aberdeen Proving Ground (Maryland), 24, 27t, 49, 50f, 51t, Alcohol, 113 n.1 52t, 221t, 223t, 224t, 226f, 230f GB neutralization in, 113-114, 186 Acetylcholene, 41-42 in low-temperature detoxification, 6, 113-114, 186 Acetylcholinesterase, 41 n.5, 41-42 in neutralization process, 62, 186 Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, 114-115 Alkanes, C2-C7, 148 Acid chorinolysis, 111, 117 Alternative technologies Activated-carbon filtering afterburners in, 19, 205 action of, 107 assessment of, 2-3, 5, 34-36, 83-84, 92-94, 259-261 in baseline technology, 17, 18, 28-29, 108 categories of, 6, 185 of chlorinated dioxin, 86 cost considerations, 5, 91-92 disposal of waste from, 107-108 development/demonstration times, 4-5, 20, 89-90, 91t role of, 13, 14, 19, 20, 106-107, 108, 194-195 development of, 29-30 in storage and certification, 88 energy consumption in, 92 in wet-air oxidation, 144 hazardous byproducts from, 85-86 Adams process high-temperature, low-pressure oxidation, 12-13 advantages, 183 high-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis, 12 applications, 182-183 low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase chlorinated compounds in, 182 detoxification, 6-10, 16, 109-110 development status, 180-182 low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase oxidation, disadvantages, 183 10-11, 16, 109-110 research needs, 183-184 metal parts in, 21, 207 technology of, 180, 181f moderate-temperature, high-pressure oxidation, 11, 16 waste streams in, 183 monitoring of, 87 Advanced Research Projects Agency, 135, 148 non-viable, 35 Afterburner processing in other countries, 62, 74 in alternative technologies, 19, 205 sources for, 2, 34-35 in baseline approach, 2, 19, 24, 194, 203, 205 for Strategy 1, 15-17, 32-33, 200-201 catalytic oxidation for, 13, 19, 174, 176, 192, 205 for Strategy 2, 17-19, 33-34, 201-205, 202t chlorinated dioxin synthesis in, 86 summary of processes, 7-9t, 187-189t in high-temperature pyrolysis, 12 toxic air emissions in, 19-20, 205-206 molten salt systems for, 19, 205 use of, 3, 29 role of, 19, 21, 205, 207 See also specific technology supercritical water oxidation for, 11, 19 Aluminum, in M55 rockets, 97 techniques, 19, 21, 199, 207 Ambrose, James R., 31, 210

INDEX 312 Ammonia research needs in, 21, 109-110, 132-134, 206 in GB detoxifiation, 113 for VX reaction products, 131-132 sodium metal ha, 122 waste from, 132, 134-135 in supercritical water oxidation, 148 for wet-air oxidation wastes, 144, 145 Ammonium peroxydisulfate, 120 whole cells method, 133 Anniston Army Depot, 27t, 50f, 51t, 52t bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide, 38 Army Research Office, 135, 148 Blister agents. See Mustard agents Artillery, 42, 44f, 47t, 48t Bombs, 42, 42 n.6, 44f, 45f, 47t Aryl chlorides, 114 See also Munitions Atomic Energy Commission, 171 Bulk material Atomization, 103 biodegradation of, 131 Azoxy compounds, 114 chemical processes for, 111 high-temperature systems for, 204 B Bursters, 48, 48 n.7, 77 Baseline technology Butyl alcohol, 119 activated-carbon filters in, 17, 18, 108 By-products afterburners in, 2, 19, 24, 194, 203, 205 of Adams process, 180, 183 augmentation strategies, 17, 18 of biological processes, 127, 131 development of, 24-26 of catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170 efficiency of, 26 n.4 chlorinated dioxins, 85-86 elements of, 23, 24, 25f in electrochemical oxidation, 278 energetics in, 203-204, 204t in HD-peracid interaction, 120 gas waste in, 24, 28, 104, 194, 203-204 of hydrogenation processes, 178-179 implementation schedule, 230-232f hydrogenation processing of, 176, 178 liquid waste in, 196 of indirect heating, 97 metal parts in, 24, 98, 193, 203-204, 204t of ionizing radiation procedure, 272 munitions disassembly in, 77-78 of molten metal pyrolysis, 153, 156 objections to, 2, 30 of sodium hydroxide neutralization of GB, 112-113 operational verification testing of, 24-26 in sodium hydroxide neutralization of VX, 113-114 process of, 1-2, 3, 94, 203 of supercritical water oxidation, 151 storage and certification in, 88 valuable, 92, 179 Benzene, 148 water as, 101-102 Binary chemical weapons, 1 n.1, 22 n.1 of wet-air oxidation, 144 Biological processes See also Reaction products; applications, 10-11, 110, 126-128, 136, 190 Waste streams/management batch bioreactor size, 134 concerns about, 127 C diffusional limitations, 85 Calcium carbonate, 76, 99 in direct destruction of agents, 128-130, 133-134 Calcium fluoride, 99 for energetics, 132 Calcium hydroxide, 6, 10, 99 enzyme-based capabilities, 129t, 130 HD reaction with, 119, 186 for GB reaction products, 131-132 Calcium salts, 77 in initial detoxification, 127 Canada, 62, 63t, 64t, 65t, 113 methane by-products, 132 Carbon dioxide, 76, 190 for mustard agents, 132 lime in capturing, 20, 104, 106, 196, 205 oxygen dilution of emissions from, 135 salt waste formation and, 99, 193 processing time in, 133-134 storage systems, 88-89, 105 for reaction products, 131-32, 134-135

INDEX 313 Catalytic extraction, 153 biodegradation of reaction products from, 131-132 Catalytic fixed bed, 13, 192 decontamination standards and, 84, 118 Catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation diffusional limitations in, 84-85 advantages, 170-171 experience with, 6-10 application, 170 of metal parts, 84, 98, 118-119 bed composition, 169, 170, 171 obstacles to, 110 development status, 170 reducing agents in organic synthesis, 121-122 disadvantages, 171 role of, 20-21, 29, 206 explosives destruction in, 169-170 See also Hydrolysis; process, 169-170 Low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxifica- research needs, 171 tion; waste streams in, 170 neutralization processes See also High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program (CSDP) Catalytic hydrogenation. See Hydrogenation processes binary chemical weapons in, 1 n.1 Catalytic oxidation advantages, 175-176 completion date, 22, 78-80, 197 as afterburner, 19, 205 environmental impact studies for, 26, 28 applications, 174, 175, 176 goals of, 1, 31-32, 196-197 development status, 175 legislative history, 22, 24-26 disadvantages, 176 schedule for, 22, 26, 27t, 78-80, 197 process, 174-175 strategies for complying with, 15-19, 32-34, 197-200 research needs, 176 Chemical stockpiles waste streams, 175 contents of, 1, 23, 37, 49, 52t in wet-air oxidation, 144 locations of, 1, 26, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t See also Catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation; munitions in, 42-49 High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation Chemical Weapons Convention, 3-4, 22-23, 35 Caustic hydrolysis, 29 Chloride ions, corrosion from, 150, 152 Center for Hazardous Material Research, 180 Chlorine/Chlorinated compounds, 6, 77, 85-86, 122 Ceramic materials, 151 in Adams process, 182 Chemical Agent Munitions Disposal System (CAMDS)24, hydrogenation processes for, 176, 177f, 178 54, 56t, 57t, 59t, 62 as oxidizing agent for VX, 117 See also Tooele Army Depot salt waste from, 30 Chemical agents in supercritical water oxidation, 146, 148 additives in, 41, 41 n.4 Chloromethane, 271 breakdown products, 76-77 m-chloroperbenzoic acid, 120 chemical composition of, 1 n.2, 76 Circulating Bed Combustor, 169 classes of, 1 n.1, 23 Clean Air Act, 145 demilitarization strategies for, 15-18, 197-200 Closed-loop gas containment, 14, 18, 28 distribution in munitions, 47t, 48t See also Storage and certification lethal doses of, 82t Coal gasification, 160-163 permissible air concentrations of, 82t, 87 Commonwealth of Independent States, 22-23, 74, 116 properties of, 37-41 disposal experiences in, 62, 67t, 68t toxicity of, 41-42 Concerned Citizens for Maryland's Environment, 36 See also Organophosphate nerve agents; Corrosion. See Equipment corrosion specific agents Cost considerations, 5, 91-92 Chemical detoxification cost per pound of agent, 92 advantages of, 110-111 full-scale production, 220-224 battlefield systems, 111, 123

INDEX 314 reverse assembly function in, 92 for wet air oxidation, 146 technology development, 91-92, 219-220 Diethylenetriamine, 114 transportation, 33 Diisopropyl carbodiimide, 41 n.4 waste shipments from Johnston Atoll, 235-236 Dimethyl surfoxide, 276 Coumaphos, 130 Dioxins. See Chlorinated dioxins Cresol, 178 Dioxins, chlorinated, 85-86 Cryofracture process, 24 n3, 95-95, 205 Disposal sites, 2, 26 Drain-in-furnace, 29 D DS2, 33 n.7, 114 DeChlor/KGME process, 114 Dunnage, 48-49 Decontamination fluid, 33, 33 n.7, 78, 99, 114, 196 DS2, 114 agent in crevices of, 84-85 Decontamination standards, 4, 82-83, 84-85 alternative technologies for, 21, 203, 204t Level 1X, 82 in baseline approach, 24 See also Level 3X decontamination; in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170 Level 5X decontamination decontamination strategies, 1, 2, 2 n.3, 16-17, 97 Demilitarization Protective Ensemble, 81 low-temperature processes for, 110 Department of Defense, 135 munitions, 78 Department of Energy, 148, 171 in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167 Detection, 84 thermal treatments for, 97 of charcoal bed contamination, 107 of chlorinated dioxins, 86-87 E difficulties in, 84-85 Edgewood Research, Development and Engineering Center, false positives in, 87 24 of GB, 84 Electric kilns, 12, 18, 191 minimum limits of, 233-234 Electro-Pyrolysis, Inc. furnace, 159f process, 87 Electrochemical oxidation, 206 research needs in, 87 advantages, 277 Detoxification applications, 21, 124, 206, 276 alternative strategies for, 200-202, 201t development status, 275-276 biological processes for, 126-128 disadvantages, 277 of charcoal filter materials, 107-108 energy use in, 277 with deferred oxidation, 20, 32-33, 80, 197-198, 206 GB in, 276 in demilitarization strategies, 15-18, 197-200 potential operating limits, 277-278 of energetics, 16-17, 18-19, 200 process, 124-125, 274-275 ionizing radiation for, 122-123 research needs, 125, 278 low-temperature, liquid-phase processes for, 6-10, 109, waste streams in, 278 186-190 Electrolytic regeneration, 10, 190 of metal parts, 16, 32-33, 84, 197 Elkem Multipurpose Furnace, 153, 155f peroxydisulfate salts in, 124 Elkera Technology, 153 See also Chemical detoxification Emulsification Development times, 91t, 220, 223-224, 226-228f in HD detoxification, 119-120, 186 for alternative technologies, 20, 198, 206, 226-228 in low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxifica- in assessing alternative technologies, 4-5 tion, 10 for cryofracture process, 95-95 Energetics, 1, 48 estimating, 5, 92 n3 in Adams process, 182 factors in, 89-90, 217-218 alternative technologies for, 21, 203, 204, 204t opportunities for shortening, 90 in baseline approach, 24, 203-204, 204t sodium hydroxide hydrolysis of GB, 200

INDEX 315 bioremediation of, 132 Fluidized bed oxidation, 12-13, 17, 18, 21 in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 169-170 See also Catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation detoxification strategies, 16-17, 18-19, 200 Fluoride/Fluorine, 30, 77, 149 disposal problems with, 33 in supercritical water oxidation, 150, 152 in high-temperature, low-pressure oxidation, 13 in wet air oxidation, 143 in high-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis, 191 France, 74 in low-temperature oxidation, 11 Fuzes, 48, 48 n.7, 77 mechanical separation of, 96 in molten salt oxidation, 173, 174 G munitions disassembly and, 77-78 GA, 23, 65t in plasma arc processes, 157 chemical structure, 37, 37 n.1 reaction with potassium hydroxide, 114 lethal doses of, 82t reaction with sodium hydroxide, 114 permissible air concentrations, 82t, 83 in supercritical water oxidation, 11, 148, 149, 150, 152, 191 storage of, 42 in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 166-167, 169, 291 toxicity of, 41 thermal treatments for, 97 Galson process, 114 in wet air oxidation, 11, 141, 146, 191 Gas storage Energy use advantages of, 19-20, 205 in Adams process, 183 estimating requirements for, 103-104 in alternative technologies, 92 techniques for, 14, 88-89, 105-106, 195 in electrochemical oxidation, 277 See also Gas wastes; in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 168, 290 Storage and certification Environmental Protection Agency, 81 Gas wastes, 4, 11, 194 Environmental risk activated-carbon adsorption for, 14, 20, 106-108, 194-195 of air emissions, 19-20, 205-206 in Adams process, 180, 183 permissible agent concentrations in air, 81, 82t, 87 afterburner technologies for, 19, 21, 199 in waste storage, 4, 106 in baseline approach, 24, 28, 86, 104, 194, 203-204 Enzyme-based hydrolysis, 128-130 in biodegradation of reaction products, 134-135 research needs in, 133-134 in hydrogenation processes, 178, 179 Equipment corrosion, 117 in hydrolysis, 33 from acid catalysts, 115 in molten metal pyrolysis, 153, 156 in gasification pros, 161, 163 monitoring technology for, 87 in supercritical water oxidation, 149, 150-151, 152 in plasma arc processes, 157 in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167 recirculated, 14, 102-103 in wet air oxidation, 142-143 reducing volume of, 14, 16, 20, 102-104, 192-193, 194, Ethanolamine, 6, 186 195, 205-206 in destruction of GB, 62, 67t, 115-116, 131, 186 strategies for managing, 13-14, 16, 17-18, 18-19, 88-89, in destruction of mustard agents, 62, 67t, 121, 186 194, 205 -206 salt wastes and, 99 in supercritical water oxidation, 16, 151, 190 Ethyl-N, N-dimethyl phosphoramidocyanidate. See GA in thermal decomposition, 97 Ethylene glycol, 113 in wet air oxidation, 16, 144, 145t Explosives. See Energetics See also Carbon dioxide; Gas storage F Gasification processes Fenton's reagents, 124 advantages, 163 Flue gas recycling, 102-103

INDEX 316 applications, 161 Hazardous materials, definition of, 37 n.2 development status, 160 HD, 1, 23 disadvantages, 163 calcium hydroxide in detoxification of, 186 research needs, 161, 163 chemical structure, 38f technology of, 160, 161t, 162t convened to thiodiethanol, 119 wastes products from, 163 emulsification, 119-120, 186 GB, 1, 20-21, 23 ethanolamine in detoxification of, 116, 121 acid-catalyzed hydrolysis for, 114-115 lethal doses of, 82t biodegradation of reaction products from, 131-132 level 5X decontamination of, 265, 266 chemical neutralization of, 62, 65t, 67t, 70t, 73t in low-temperature, liquid-phase detoxification, 6, 10, chemical structure, 37, 37 n.1, 38f 118-121,186 detection levels, 84, 233-234 minimum detection limits, 233-234 direct biological destruction of, 128-130, 133-134 nitrogen compounds in, 101 ethanolamine in destruction of, 62, 67t, 115-116, 131, 186 past disposal experiences, 61t lethal doses of, 82t permissible air concentrations, 82t level 5X decontamination of, 263-264, 265 properties, 38, 39-40t, 41 low-temperature detoxification for, 6, 10, 109, 186 reaction with oxidizing agents, 119-120 moderate-temperature, high-pressure oxidation for, 11 reaction with peracids, 120 nitrogen compounds in, 101 solubility, 118, 119 organic synthesis agents and, 121-122 See also Mustard agents oxidation reaction for, 276 Heteroatoms past disposal experiences, 54, 56t, 57t, 58t, 62 in Adams process, 183 permissible air concentrations, 82t, 83 in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 171 properties, 38, 39-40t in electrochemical oxidation, 275, 277 reaction with alkali in alcohol, 113-114 in form of stable salts, 76 reaction with sodium hydroxide, 112-114, 186, 200 in hydrogenation processes, 176, 179 salt wastes, 99, 100t, 193 in plasma arc processes, 156 storage, 42 in supercritical water oxidation, 146, 149 in supercritical water oxidation, 149, 281, 287 Hexachloroethane, 271 in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167, 287-291 HF. See Hydrofluoric acid toxicity of, 41 High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation, 137 wet air oxidation of, after hydrolysis, 141-142, 143, 144 application of, 12-13, 192, 203 GD, chemical neutralization of, 67t summary of processes, 9t, 189t, 192-193 General Electric KPEG process, 114 See also Catalytic oxidation; Germany, 66t Molten salt oxidation Greenpeace International, 30, 35, 36 High-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis, 29, 137, 191-192 application of, 12 H gasification processes, 160-163 H, 1, 23 summary of processes, 9t, 189t lethal doses of, 82t See also Molten metal pyrolysis; low-temperature detoxification for, 109 Plasma arc processes; organic synthesis agents and, 121-122 Synthetica Steam Detoxifier past disposal experiences, 54, 55t HPO2, 122 permissible air concentrations, 82t HT, 1, 23 with potassium hydroxide in methanol, 113-114 lethal doses of, 82t properties, 38, 39-40t, 41 permissible air concentrations, 82t See also Mustard agents

INDEX 317 properties, 38, 39-40t, 41 of VX, 62 See also Mustard agents See also, High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation; Hydrocarbons High-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis oxidation of, 274-275 Indirect heating techniques, 97-98 in supercritical water oxidation, 146, 149 International agreements Hydrofluoric acid Chemical Weapons Convention, 3-4, 22-23, 197 in acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, 115 compliance with, 20, 32, 80, 197-198, 206 in ethanolamine processing, 115-116 Ionizing radiation, 122-123 in hydrolysis of GB, 113 advantages, 272 Hydrogen, in disposal process, 76 applications, 271-272 Hydrogen chloride, 175 development needs, 273 Hydrogen peroxide, 6, 21 development status, 271 in chemical oxidation, 124, 206 disadvantages, 272 sodium hydroxide and, 116 technology, 271 VX in sodium hydroxide and, 116, 186 waste streams in, 272 Hydrogen sulfide, 175 Iraq, 37, 72t, 73t Hydrogenation processes, 189t Isopropyl methyl phosphonofluoridate. See GB advantages, 179 applications, 176, 178 J catalysts in, 178 Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System development status, 178 (JACADS), 1, 2, 24-26 , 27t, 49, 51t, 52t, 60t, 61t, 62 process, 176, 177f chlorinated dioxin reaction products in, 86 research needs, 179 demilitarization process, 77-78, 79f waste streams, 178-179 gas storage requirements, 104 Hydrolysis nitrogen oxide generation at, 101 acid-catalyzed, 114-115 solid waste in, 82 caustic, 29 transportation of waste from, 235-236 enzyme-based, 128-130 K of GB, 112-116 of mustard agents, 118-119 Kentucky Environmental Foundation, 36 role of, 3, 32 L salt wastes from, 100 of VX, 116-117 Land mines, 42, 43f, 47t, 77 waste products from, 3, 33, 100, 110 Landfill, 33 See also Chemical detoxification contaminated carbon filters in, 107, 108 dunnage materials in, 2 n.3 I salt wastes in, 99 In-shell combustion, 29 Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, 124 Incineration Lethal in baseline technology, 2, 8, 24, 28, 94 definition of, 37 n.2 chlorinated dioxin synthesis in, 85-86 doses of chemical agents, 82t of contaminated carbon filters, 107 Level 1X decontamination, 82 of GB, 62 Level 3X decontamination, 4, 82-83, 84 level 5X standard for, 4, 32, 83, 84 of metal, chemical processes for, 98 of M55 rockets, 78 salt wastes, shipment of, 100-101 nitrogen oxides in, 101 Level 5X decontamination, 4, 32, 83, 84 opposition to, 28, 30

INDEX 318 data sources, 262-263, 266-267 M equivalency, 83 M34 bomblet dusters, 34 of GB, 263-264, 265 M55 rockets, 29, 33, 42, 43f, 47t, 48t of HD, 265, 266 disposal productivity, 80 indirect heating methods for, 97 in indirect thermal decomposition, 97 of M55 rocket, 263-264 level 5X decontamination of, 263-264 of metal wastes, 98-99 removal of agent from, 77-78 of VX, 263-264, 265, 266 sheer machine for, 77 for waste salts, 195 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, 54 Lewisite (L), 41, 42, 82t MC-1 bomb, 42 n.6 Lexington-Blue Grass Army Depot, 27t, 30, 49, 50f, 51t, Mechanized processes, for disassembly, 96 52t, 222t, 223t, 224t, 228f, 232f Mediated electrochemical oxidation, 124-125, 274, 277 LiAlH4, 122 Metal parts Lime, 20, 104, 205 alternative technologies for, 14, 21, 203, 204t, 207 Liquid waste, 4, 32, 196 in baseline approach, 1-2, 14, 24, 193, 203-204, 240t from biological degradation, 134-135 in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170 biological oxidation for, 10-11 chemical detoxification of, 84 in hydrogenation processes, 178-179 detoxification of, 16, 32-33, 193 internal recycling for, 81 high-temperature processes for, 12 source of, 15 indirect heating of, 97-98 standards for, 81 low-temperature processes for, 110 in supercritical water oxidation, 151 in molten metal pyrolysis, 19, 153 water, 101-102 oxidation of, 17 Locations of stockpiles, 1, 26, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t postprocessing operations, 98-99 Low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxification in supercritical water oxidation, 149 applications, 6-10, 16, 17, 32, 186, 200-201 in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167 for GB, 112-116, 186 thermal treatments for, 19, 97, 191 irreversibility of, 109, 186-190 Methane for mustard agents, 118-121, 186 as biological process by-product, 132 research needs, 10 in supercritical water oxidation, 148 summary of processes in, 7t, 187t Methanol, 113 technology, 6-10, 186 2-methoxyethanol, 113 for VX, 116-117, 186 Methylene chloride, 175 See also Biological processes; Mineralization, 17-19 Chemical detoxification alternative strategies, 201-205, 202t Low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase oxidation definition of, 32 n.6 application, 10-11, 16 of gas wastes, 196 electrochemical, 21, 124, 206, 275-278 goals, 33-34, 198-200, 199f prospects for, 109, 203 See also Oxidation processes role of, 123, 190 Mitre Corporation, 26 summary of processes in, 8t, 188t MK-94 technology, 10, 190 bomb, 42 n.6 ultraviolet radiation in, 123, 124, 125-126, 190 MK-116 bomb, 42 n.6 See also Biological processes; Moderate-temperature, high-pressure processes, 138 Oxidation processes application of, 11, 16, 17, 191

INDEX 319 examples of, 137, 190 disposal in Iraq, 72t process, 11, 190-191 gas, 1, 3 research needs, 11 in gel form, 10, 41, 96 See also Supercritical water oxidation; hydrolysis of, 118-119 Wet air oxidation long-term exposure to, 42 Molten metal pyrolysis mediated electrochemical oxidation of, 125 applications, 19, 21, 153, 156, 191 moderate-temperature, high-pressure oxidation for, 11 development status, 153 past disposal experiences, 54, 55t process, 12, 152-153, 154-155f permissible air concentrations, 82t, 83 reaction products, 153 sodium hypochlorite reactions, 119-120 research needs, 156 storage of, 42 waste streams, 18 in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 169 See also High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation See also H; Molten Metal Technology, 153, 154f HD; Molten salt oxidation, 12-13, 17, 18, 21 HT advantages, 174, 192 as afterburner, 19, 205 N application, 173 NaBH4, 122 development status, 171-172 NaOH. See Sodium hydroxide disadvantages, 173, 174 Napthalene, 148 energetics in, 173, 174, 204 National Academy of Sciences, 29, 54 energy use, 92 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 148 process, 171, 173 National Defense Authorization Act, 23 n.2, 30 research needs, 174 National Environmental Technology Application Corpora- waste streams 173 tion, 180 See also High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 81 Mortar cartridges, 42, 47t National Research Council, 23, 26, 29, 34 Moving bed evaporator, 163-164, 166, 169 National Science Foundation, 148 Munitions, 49>42 Nerve agents. See Organophosphate nerve agents in baseline technology, 77-78 Nervous system, nerve agent action in, 41-42 composition of, 47t, 48t Neutralization processes, 54, 56t, 62, 65t, 67t, 74 dunnage, 78 alkali in alcohol, 113-114 geographic distribution, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t ammonia in, 113 ionizing radiation for, 122-123, 272 for GB, 62, 65t, 70t, 73t, 112-114 mechanical disassembly of, 96 for mustard agents, 63t, 67t plasma are processes for, 157 potassium hydroxide in, 113-114 reverse assembly of, 23, 77-78, 80, 92, 94, 95-96, 201 for salt wastes, 99 storage conditions, 77 See also Chemical detoxification; waste streams, 77-78 Ethanolamine; work environment for disposal of, 78 Sodium hydroxide Mustard agents Newport Army Ammunition Plant (Indiana), 26, 27t, 49, action of, 42 50f, 51t, 221t, 223t, 224f, 227f, 231f Army code designations, 23 Nickel, in fluidized-bed oxidation, 170, 171 biological processes for, 132 Nitrogen calcium chloride generation in disposal of, 99 in combustion, 102-103 chemical detoxification of, 63t, 67t, 118 in supercritical water oxidation, 148 chemical properties, 38n.3, 39-40t, 41 Nitrogen oxides, 101 containers for, 16 from ethanolamine, 115-116, 121

INDEX 320 in supercritical water oxidation, 149 research needs, 203 Norepinephrine, 41 risks of, 103 in supercritical water oxidation, 148, 190, 196 n.1 O in waste gas storage, 104, 106 LO-ethyl-S-[2-diisopropyl aminoethyl] in wet air oxidation, 143-144, 190 methylphosphonothiolate. See VX Ozone, 125-126 Occupational, Safety and Health Act, 81 Ocean dumping, 29, 54 P Office of Naval Research, 135 Packaging. See Dunnage Office of Technology Assessment, 30 Peracids, 120 Ogden Environmental Services, 169 Peroxydisulfates, 21, 206 Organic synthesis, 121-122 in low-temperature oxidation, 10, 124, 190 Organophosphate nerve agents, 23 mustard reactions, 120 biological detoxification of, 127, 129t, 130 Pesticides, 139 chemical composition, 37 Phosphorous, 77, 148 See also Chemical agents Pilot plants, 89, 91t Ortho-iodosobenzoate catalyst, 112 Adams process, 180-182, 183 Oxidation processes catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170-171 acidic products of, 98 development times, 5 carbon dioxide in, 76, 190 for high-pressure oxidation processes, 11 deferred, 20, 32-33, 80, 197-198, 206 molten metal pyrolysis, 156 in demilitarization strategies, 2, 17-18, 32, 34, 190 molten salt oxidation, 174 Fenton's reagents in, 124 recycled flue gases in, 102-103 GB in, 276 Pine Bluff Arsenal, 27t, 50f, 51t, 52t lid in, 119-121 Plasma arc processes, 12, 17, 18, 19, 21, 191 hydrocarbons in, 274-275 advantages of, 160 hydrogen peroxide in, 124 application, 157 low-temperature, liquid-phase, 109 development status, 157 nitrogen oxides in, 101 disadvantages of, 160 one-step approaches, 17 energy use, 92 peroxydisulfate salts in, 124 oxygen sources for, 157 reducing gas waste volume in, 102-103 process, 156-157, 158-159f ultraviolet light in, 125-126 research needs, 160 for VX in acid, 117 waste stream, 157-159 See also High-temperature, low-pressure oxidation; Poisonous substance, definition of, 37 n.2 Low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase oxidation; Pollution abatement moderate-temperature, high-pressure processes afterburner exhaust, 2 OXONE, 116, 117, 120 assessment of systems for, 95 Oxygen, pure in baseline approach, 23 in afterburners, 19 liquid waste in, 196 in combustion processes, 11, 13, 196 toxic air emissions, 19-20 in diluting gaseous emissions from bioremediation, 135 water wastes in, 101-102 in gas waste management, 14, 16, 20, 196, 203-204 See also Waste streams/management in high-temperature, low-pressure oxidation, 192-193 Polychlorinated biphenyls, 49, 114, 178 in molten salt oxidation, 173 in plasma arc processes, 157 in reducing gas waste volume, 102-103, 192-193, 194, 195

INDEX 321 Polyethylene glycol, 113, 114 composition of, 76 Potassium hydroxide disposal of, 77 in alcohol, GB reaction with, 113-114, 131 drying of, 100 in DeChlor/KGME process, 114 heteroatoms in, 30 in neutralization of H, 113-114 in hydrolysis of mustard, 118, 119 in polyethylene glycol, 113, 114 level 5X decontamination of, 195 Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement, 28, 28 n.5, in molten salt oxidation, 171, 173, 174 31 from neutralization of GB, 99, 193 Propellants. See Energetics shipment of, 100-101 Propytene carbonate, 276 in sodium hydroxide neutralization of GB, 112 Public interest groups, 36 solubility, 77, 99 Public opinion source of, 98, 99 health concerns, 28 n.5 in supercritical water oxidation reactor, 149-150, 151, 152 opposition to incineration, 30 in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167, 168 Pueblo Depot, 27t, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t Satin. See GB Pyrolysis Scientists Against Nuclear Arms, 35 steam, 29, 192 (CH3CH2CH2CH2)3SnH, 122 See also High-temperature, low-pressure pyrolysis Sodium fluoride, 99 Sodium hydroxide, 6, 99 R in DS2 decontamination fluid, 114 Reaction products GB and, 112-114, 186, 200 bioticgradation of, 126, 127, 131-132, 134-135 hydrogen peroxide and, 116 in chemical detoxification, 10, 20 hydrolysis of mustard agents and, 118, 119 in ethanolamine processing, 115-116 in VX detoxification, 116, 186 GB, 115-116, 131-132 Sodium hypochlorite, HD and, 120 in indirect heating, 97 Sodium metal, 122 in low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxifica- Spectrometry, agent-specific, 87 tion, 10 Steam gasification, 12, 17, 21 in neutralization with alkali in alcohol, 113-114 Steam pyrolysis, 29, 192 in pyrolysis, 137 Storage in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167, 168 bulk liquid, 42 VX, 116, 117, 131-132 of chemical munitions, 42-49, 77 See also By-products of contaminated carbon filter material, 108 Recirculated flue gas, 102-103 See also Gas storage; Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 81, 145 Storage and certification Reverse assembly, 23, 75, 77-78, 80, 94, 201 Storage and certification, 28, 88, 195 cost of, 92 alternatives to, 88-89 cryofracture alternative, 95-96 need for, 30, 103 mechanical, 96 retention times, 76, 88-89 Rocky Mountain Arsenal, 54, 55t, 56t Strategy 1, 15-17, 32-33, 197-198, 200-201, 201t Rutgers University, 135 Strategy 2, 17-19, 33-34, 198-200, 201-205, 202t Sulfur, 77 S in Adams process, 180 Safety standards dioxide, 175 decontamination levels, 4, 82-83, 84-85 in hydrogenation processes, 176 for pure oxygen use, 103 in supercritical water oxidation, 148 for work environments, 81 trioxide, 175 Salt wastes, 15, 99, 193-194 vapor, 76 in biodegradation of reaction products, 135

INDEX 322 Supercritical water oxidation, 11, 16, 17-18, 21, 190-191, 203 T advantages of, 151-152 Tabun. See GA as afterburner, 19 Tetrachloride, 271 applications, 146, 148, 149, 282-285t Tetraethyl lead, 178 by-products, 151 Texas A & M University, 135 corrosion in, 149, 150-151, 152 Thiodiethanol development status, 148-149, 202t HD converted to, 119 disadvantages of, 152 peracid in detoxification of, 120 energetics in, 148, 149, 150, 152 Thiodiglycol, biological detoxification of, 127, 132 of GB, 149, 281, 287 Titanium, 143 kinetic data, 148-149 TMU-28/B spray tanks, 42 n.6, 47t material balance in, 281, 287 TNT, 114, 169-170 model compounds in, 286f Tooele Army Depot, 24, 26, 27t, 42, 49, 50f, 51t, 52t, 54, oxygen requirements, 102, 196 n.1 56t, 57 t, 59t process, 146-148, 147f disposal schedule, 80 properties of water in, 146, 149 Toxic, definition of, 37 n.2 reaction rate, 149, 152 Toxic Substances Control Act, 26, 81 reactor design, 150, 152 Transportation, 31 reactor plugging in, 148 in assessing alternative technologies, 35 research needs, 152 in baseline approach, 24 salt precipitation in, 149-150, 151, 152 of by-product 3X salts, 100-101 waste streams in, 151 in demilitarization strategy options, 15-16, 32, 33, 197 Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program, 35 from Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System, Surface interface, 10 235-236 in liquid-phase detoxification of HD, 119-120, 186 Treaties, 3-4, 22-23 Synthetica Steam Detoxifier Tributylamine, 41 n.4 advantages, 168 Trichloroethylene, 175, 176 n.9, 178, 271 applications, 166-167 1,3,5-trimethyl benzene, 148 corrosion control in, 167 Tris(trimethylsilyl) silane, 122 disadvantages, 168 energetics in, 166-167, 169, 291 U energy use in, 168, 290 Ultraviolet light, 10, 123, 124, 125-126, 190 GB in, 287-291 Umatilla Depot Activity, 27t, 50f, 51t, 52t heat/material balances in, 287-291 Underground combustion, 29 moving bed evaporator in, 163-164, 166, 169 Unitary chemical weapons, 1 n.1, 22 n.1 operational status, 166 United Kingdom, 69t, 70t, 71t, 113, 119 process, 163-166, 164t United Nations, 72t, 73t product gas in, 165-166 University of Pittsburgh, 180 research needs, 168-169 University of Washington (Seattle), 135 test results, 166 UOP HyChlor conversion process, 177f, 178 waste streams, 167 Synthetica Technologies, Inc., 164 V VX, 1, 23 biodegradation of reaction products from, 131-132 chemical detoxification of, 21, 65t, 67t, 74

INDEX 323 chemical structure, 37, 37n.1, 38f development status, 139 direct biological destruction of, 128-130, 133-134 development time, 146 lethal doses of, 82t disadvantages of, 145 level 5X decontamination of, 263-264, 265, 266 experience with, 139 low-temperature, low-pressure, liquid-phase detoxification of GB, 141-142, 143, 144 of, 6, 10, 109, 186 material balance in, 279-281 minimum detection limits, 233-234 operating temperatures, 141, 142t, 143 moderate-temperature, high-pressure oxidation of, 11 process, 138-139, 140f nitrogen compounds in, 101 pure oxygen in, 143-144 organic synthesis agents and, 121-122 reaction rate in, 141 oxidation agents for, in acid, 117 reactor design, 141 past disposal experiences, 59t, 60t, 62 research needs, 145-146 permissible air concentrations, 82t waste streams, 139, 144, 145t properties, 38, 39-40t Work environment, 78, 81 reaction with sodium hydroxide, 113-114, 116, 186 Worker protection, 81 reactions in low pH solutions, 186 storage of, 42 toxicity of, 41, 41n.5 W Waste streams/management, 1, 4, 13-15 in Adams process, 180, 183 assessment of, 93 in baseline technology, 2, 24 biological detoxification of, 126-127, 131, 134-135 in catalytic fluidized-bed oxidation, 170 in catalytic oxidation, 175 chemical breakdown products, 76-77 in coal gasification, 163 demilitarization strategies for, 15-19, 32-33 drying wet wastes, 4, 100 in electrochemical oxidation, 278 heteroatoms in, 30 high-temperature, low-pressure oxidation treatment for, 12-13 in hydrogenation processes, 178-179 in ionizing radiation process, 272 in low-temperature, liquid-phase processes, 10, 109, 110, 111, 190 metal wastes in, 193 in molten metal pyrolysis, 153, 156 in molten salt oxidation, 173, 174 in munitions destruction, 77-78 nitrogen oxides in, 101 in peroxydisulfate salt oxidation, 10, 124 in plasma arc processes, 157-159 solid wastes, 4, 78, 82-83, 98-99, 193-194 in supercritical water oxidation, 151 in Synthetica Steam Detoxifier, 167 water, 101-102 in wet air oxidation, 139, 144 See also Gas wastes; Liquid wastes; Metal parts; Salt wastes; Storage and certification Water wastes, 101-102 Westinghouse plasma system, 158f Wet air oxidation, 11, 16, 17-18, 21, 102, 190-191 addition of caustic in, 142-143 advantages of, 144 application of, 139-141 corrosion concerns in, 142-143

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The U.S. Army Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program was established with the goal of destroying the nation's stockpile of lethal unitary chemical weapons. Since 1990 the U.S. Army has been testing a baseline incineration technology on Johnston Island in the southern Pacific Ocean. Under the planned disposal program, this baseline technology will be imported in the mid to late 1990s to continental United States disposal facilities; construction will include eight stockpile storage sites.

In early 1992 the Committee on Alternative Chemical Demilitarization Technologies was formed by the National Research Council to investigate potential alternatives to the baseline technology. This book, the result of its investigation, addresses the use of alternative destruction technologies to replace, partly or wholly, or to be used in addition to the baseline technology. The book considers principal technologies that might be applied to the disposal program, strategies that might be used to manage the stockpile, and combinations of technologies that might be employed.

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