National Academies Press: OpenBook

Design Guide for Bridges for Service Life (2013)

Chapter: Front Matter

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2013. Design Guide for Bridges for Service Life. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/22617.
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Design Guide for Bridges for Service Life S2-R19A-RW-2

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2014 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE* OFFICERS Chair: Kirk T. Steudle, Director, Michigan Department of Transportation, Lansing Vice Chair: Daniel Sperling, Professor of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science and Policy; Director, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis Executive Director: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board MEMBERS Victoria A. Arroyo, Executive Director, Georgetown Climate Center, and Visiting Professor, Georgetown University Law Center, Washington, D.C. Scott E. Bennett, Director, Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department, Little Rock Deborah H. Butler, Executive Vice President, Planning, and CIO, Norfolk Southern Corporation, Norfolk, Virginia (Past Chair, 2013) James M. Crites, Executive Vice President of Operations, Dallas–Fort Worth International Airport, Texas Malcolm Dougherty, Director, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento A. Stewart Fotheringham, Professor and Director, Centre for Geoinformatics, School of Geography and Geosciences, University of St. Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom John S. Halikowski, Director, Arizona Department of Transportation, Phoenix Michael W. Hancock, Secretary, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet, Frankfort Susan Hanson, Distinguished University Professor Emerita, School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts Steve Heminger, Executive Director, Metropolitan Transportation Commission, Oakland, California Chris T. Hendrickson, Duquesne Light Professor of Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Jeffrey D. Holt, Managing Director, Bank of Montreal Capital Markets, and Chairman, Utah Transportation Commission, Huntsville, Utah Gary P. LaGrange, President and CEO, Port of New Orleans, Louisiana Michael P. Lewis, Director, Rhode Island Department of Transportation, Providence Joan McDonald, Commissioner, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany Abbas Mohaddes, President and CEO, Iteris, Inc., Santa Ana, California Donald A. Osterberg, Senior Vice President, Safety and Security, Schneider National, Inc., Green Bay, Wisconsin Steven W. Palmer, Vice President of Transportation, Lowe’s Companies, Inc., Mooresville, North Carolina Sandra Rosenbloom, Professor, University of Texas, Austin (Past Chair, 2012) Henry G. (Gerry) Schwartz, Jr., Chairman (retired), Jacobs/Sverdrup Civil, Inc., St. Louis, Missouri Kumares C. Sinha, Olson Distinguished Professor of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana Gary C. Thomas, President and Executive Director, Dallas Area Rapid Transit, Dallas, Texas Paul Trombino III, Director, Iowa Department of Transportation, Ames Phillip A. Washington, General Manager, Regional Transportation District, Denver, Colorado EX OFFICIO MEMBERS Thomas P. Bostick, (Lt. General, U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commanding General, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C. Timothy P. Butters, Acting Administrator, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation Alison J. Conway, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, City College of New York, New York, and Chair, TRB Young Members Council T. F. Scott Darling III, Acting Administrator and Chief Counsel, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation David J. Friedman, Acting Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation LeRoy Gishi, Chief, Division of Transportation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. John T. Gray II, Senior Vice President, Policy and Economics, Association of American Railroads, Washington, D.C. Michael P. Huerta, Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation Paul N. Jaenichen, Sr., Acting Administrator, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation Therese W. McMillan, Acting Administrator, Federal Transit Administration Michael P. Melaniphy, President and CEO, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, D.C. Gregory Nadeau, Acting Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation Peter M. Rogoff, Under Secretary for Policy, U.S. Department of Transportation Craig A. Rutland, U.S. Air Force Pavement Engineer, Air Force Civil Engineer Center, Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida Joseph C. Szabo, Administrator, Federal Railroad Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation Barry R. Wallerstein, Executive Officer, South Coast Air Quality Management District, Diamond Bar, California Gregory D. Winfree, Assistant Secretary for Research and Technology, Office of the Secretary, U.S. Department of Transportation Frederick G. (Bud) Wright, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Paul F. Zukunft, Adm., U.S. Coast Guard, Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Department of Homeland Security. * Membership as of October 2014.

The Second STraTegic highway reSearch Program Atorod Azizinamini Florida International University Edward H. Power HDR Engineering, Inc. Glenn F. Myers Atkins North America Inc. H. Celik Ozyildirim Virginia Center for Transportation Innovation and Research Eric Kline KTA-Tator, Inc. David W. Whitmore Vector Corrosion Technologies Ltd. Dennis R. Mertz University of Delaware TranSPorTaTion reSearch Board Washington, D.C. 2014 www.TRB.org Design Guide for Bridges for Service Life SHRP 2 Report S2-R19A-RW-2

Subject AreAS Bridges and Other Structures Highways Maintenance and Preservation Materials

the Second StrAtegic highwAy reSeArch ProgrAm America’s highway system is critical to meeting the mobility and economic needs of local communities, regions, and the nation. Developments in research and technology—such as advanced materials, communications technology, new data collection technologies, and human factors science—offer a new opportunity to improve the safety and reliability of this important national resource. Breakthrough resolution of significant transportation problems, however, requires concentrated resources over a short time frame. Reflecting this need, the second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2) has an intense, large-scale focus, integrates mul- tiple fields of research and technology, and is fundamentally different from the broad, mission-oriented, discipline-based research programs that have been the mainstay of the high- way research industry for half a century. The need for SHRP 2 was identified in TRB Special Report 260: Strategic Highway Research: Saving Lives, Reducing Congestion, Improving Quality of Life, pub- lished in 2001 and based on a study sponsored by Congress through the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Cen- tury (TEA-21). SHRP 2, modeled after the first Strategic Highway Research Program, is a focused, time-constrained, management-driven program designed to complement existing highway research programs. SHRP 2 focuses on applied research in four areas: Safety, to prevent or reduce the severity of highway crashes by understanding driver behavior; Renewal, to address the aging infrastruc- ture through rapid design and construction methods that cause minimal disruptions and produce lasting facilities; Reliability, to reduce congestion through incident reduc- tion, management, response, and mitigation; and Capacity, to integrate mobility, economic, environmental, and com- munity needs in the planning and designing of new trans- portation capacity. SHRP 2 was authorized in August 2005 as part of the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU). The pro- gram is managed by the Transportation Research Board (TRB) on behalf of the National Research Council (NRC). SHRP 2 is conducted under a memorandum of understand- ing among the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), and the National Academy of Sci- ences, parent organization of TRB and NRC. The program provides for competitive, merit-based selection of research contractors; independent research project oversight; and dissemination of research results. SHRP 2 Report S2-R19A-RW-2 ISBN: 978-0-309-27326-8 © 2014 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. CoPyRigHt infoRmAtion Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from pub- lishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein. The second Strategic Highway Research Program grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, or FHWA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing material in this document for educa- tional and not-for-profit purposes will give appropriate ac- knowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from SHRP 2. Note: SHRP 2 report numbers convey the program, focus area, project number, and publication format. Report num- bers ending in “w” are published as web documents only. notiCE The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the second Strategic Highway Research Program, conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. The members of the technical committee selected to moni- tor this project and to review this report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance. The report was reviewed by the technical commit- tee and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council. The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the re- search and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, or the pro- gram sponsors. The Transportation Research Board of the National Acad- emies, the National Research Council, and the sponsors of the second Strategic Highway Research Program do not en- dorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufac turers’ names appear herein solely because they are considered essen tial to the object of the report. SHRP 2 REPoRtS Available by subscription and through the TRB online bookstore: www.mytrb.org/store Contact the TRB Business Office: 202.334.3213 More information about SHRP 2: www.TRB.org/SHRP2

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished schol- ars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and techni- cal matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advis- ing the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achieve- ments of engineers. Dr. C. D. Mote, Jr., is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the ser- vices of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sci- ences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president of the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sci- ences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. C. D. Mote, Jr., are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council. The Transportation Research Board is one of six major divisions of the National Research Council. The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to provide leadership in transportation innovation and progress through research and information exchange, conducted within a setting that is objective, inter- disciplinary, and multimodal. The Board’s varied activities annually engage about 7,000 engineers, sci- entists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies, including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation. www.TRB.org www.national-academies.org

ShrP 2 StAFF Ann M. Brach, Director Stephen J. Andrle, Deputy Director Neil J. Pedersen, Deputy Director, Implementation and Communications Cynthia Allen, Editor Kenneth Campbell, Chief Program Officer, Safety JoAnn Coleman, Senior Program Assistant, Capacity and Reliability Eduardo Cusicanqui, Financial Officer Richard Deering, Special Consultant, Safety Data Phase 1 Planning Shantia Douglas, Senior Financial Assistant Charles Fay, Senior Program Officer, Safety Carol Ford, Senior Program Assistant, Renewal and Safety James Hedlund, Special Consultant, Safety Coordination Alyssa Hernandez, Reports Coordinator Ralph Hessian, Special Consultant, Capacity and Reliability Andy Horosko, Special Consultant, Safety Field Data Collection William Hyman, Senior Program Officer, Reliability Linda Mason, Communications Officer Matthew Miller, Program Officer, Capacity and Reliability David Plazak, Senior Program Officer, Capacity and Reliability Rachel Taylor, Senior Editorial Assistant Dean Trackman, Managing Editor Connie Woldu, Administrative Coordinator

This work was sponsored by the Transportation Research Board of the National Acad- emy of Sciences and was conducted as part of the Second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2). The project (R19A) was managed by program officers Monica Starnes (December 2007 through January 2011), Mark Bush (January 2011 through November 2011), and Jerry DiMaggio (December 2011 onward), and the authors greatly appreciate their input and guidance throughout the project. The project princi- pal investigator was Atorod Azizinamini, Chair person of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department at Florida International University. Don White of the Georgia Institute of Technology is greatly acknowledged for being a member of the research team and for his contributions to the development of the Guide. Several consultants and industry representatives provided input into the research and development of various parts of the Guide. In particular, the authors thank Martin Burke, private consultant; Reid W. Castrodale, Carolina Stalite Company; David Darwin, University of Kansas; Simon Greensted, Sterling Lloyd; Mark Kaczinski, D.S. Brown Company; Ralph Oesterle, CTL Group; Duncan Paterson, HDR Engi- neering, Inc.; Charles Roeder, University of Washington; and Ronald J. Watson, R.J. Watson, Inc. Throughout the research studies, various bridge committees within the AASHTO Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures (SCOBS) provided valuable input and review comments. The authors especially thank AASHTO Technical Committee T-9 and the leadership and help provided by Mr. Bruce Johnson, Chair of the AASHTO T-9 Committee. The authors also thank the members of the Project R19A TETG for their valuable technical comments and guidance throughout the project. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Several research associates and graduate students assisted in conducting the project. Nima Ala, Saeed Doust, Marcelo Da Silva, and Ardalan Sherafati obtained their Ph.D. degrees by carrying out various research tasks within Project R19A, and Luke Glaser and Kyle Burner obtained their M.S. degrees. The authors thank Kromel Hanna, Research Associate at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (Omaha campus), for his contributions. The authors especially thank Aaron Yakel, Research Associate at Florida Inter- national University, for his assistance with various research topics and with putting the Guide in its final format. Special thanks are also due to Christine Boyer of Boyer Associates for her professional editing of the Guide and for her coordination with the editorial staff at SHRP 2, headed by Dean Trackman. The authors acknowledge the contribution of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln for providing the testing facility to carry out the experimental work while the P.I. was a member of the faculty.

FOREWORD This report, Design Guide for Bridges for Service Life, is the main product of SHRP 2 Project R19A, Bridges for Service Life Beyond 100 Years: Innovative Systems, Sub- systems, and Components. Compared with traditional approaches, which are based solely on strength considerations, this guide advances an emerging approach to bridge design, rehabilitation, and preservation that is based on service life considerations. Both the Guide and its companion report, Bridges for Service Life Beyond 100 Years: Innovative Systems, Subsystems, and Components, are available at the Transportation Research Board website (http://www.trb.org/Design/Blurbs/168760.aspx). The main objective of the Guide is to provide information and guidance and to define procedures to systematically approach service life and durability for both new and existing bridges. The Guide equips users with knowledge to develop specific solu- tions for a bridge under consideration in a systematic manner by using a standard framework. In some respects, the R19A Guide may be considered a foundational refer- ence that will be built on, expanded, modified, and progressively embraced at different project and program levels by the bridge and structures community. The future path of development and mainstream acceptance and implementation may be similar to that of load resistance factor design (LRFD) specifications. Providing safety for the public by having adequate strength is the cornerstone of the framework used by engineers for bridge design. This approach has not been restricted to bridges; for example, it has also been the framework used in various building codes. Significant changes to our contemporary bridge design practice have also been mainly related to strength issues. The transition to LRFD is a well-known recent example. A review of bridges that have lasted more than 100 years provides valuable lessons related to achieving long service lives. These bridges—which have proved to be maintainable and well maintained over their lives and adaptable to func- tional changes—were all originally overdesigned. Jerry A. Dimaggio, D.gE, PE SHRP 2 Senior Program Officer, Renewal

As limited resources demand enhancing the service life of existing and new bridges, the design for service life is gaining more importance. The cost of addressing service life issues at the design stage is significantly lower than taking maintenance and preservation actions while the bridge is in service. In general, design for service life is approached by using individual strategies, each capable of enhancing the ser- vice life of a particular bridge element that historically has experienced unsatisfactory performance. The R19A Guide addresses service life in a systematic manner by using a frame- work that is general and applicable for all bridges, while having specifics that differ from one bridge to another. These differences reflect that design for service life is a context-sensitive problem-solving method that necessarily considers local experiences, practice, and owner preferences. The Guide includes both well-proven and new con- cepts and approaches capable of enhancing the service life of bridges. The Guide’s objective is achieved through 11 chapters, each devoted to certain parts of a bridge or aspects of the service life design process.

CONTENTS 1 ChApTER 1 Design for Service Life: General Framework 1 1.1 Background 5 1.2 Objectives of the Guide 6 1.3 Bridge Service Life Terminology and Relationships 7 1.4 Guide Approach to Design for Service Life 13 1.5 Organization of the Guide 14 1.6 Categories of Information Provided in Guide Chapters 18 1.7 Quantifying Service Life of Bridge Element, Component, Subsystem, and System 25 1.8 Owner’s Manual 26 1.9 Independent Review of Design for Service Life Process 26 1.10 Summary of Steps for Design for Service Life for Specific Bridge Element, Component, and Subsystem 27 1.11 Approaches to Using the Guide 47 1.12 Future Development of the Guide 49 ChApTER 2 Bridge System Selection 49 2.1 Introduction 50 2.2 Bridge System Description 72 2.3 Factors Affecting Service Life 103 2.4 Options for Enhancing Service Life 111 2.5 Strategy Selection 121 2.6 Bridge Management

123 ChApTER 3 Materials 123 3.1 Introduction 124 3.2 Description of Material Types 154 3.3 Concrete and Steel Distresses and Solutions 165 3.4 Fault Tree Analysis of Factors Influencing Service Life 179 3.5 Individual Strategies to Mitigate Factors Affecting Service Life 183 3.6 Overall Strategies for Enhanced Material Service Life 186 ChApTER 4 Bridge Decks 186 4.1 Introduction 186 4.2 Description of Bridge-Deck Types 194 4.3 Factors Influencing Bridge-Deck Service Life 212 4.4 Individual Strategies to Mitigate Factors Affecting Service Life 225 4.5 Overall Strategies for Enhanced Bridge-Deck Service Life 235 ChApTER 5 Corrosion of Steel in Reinforced Concrete Bridges 235 5.1 Introduction 236 5.2 Description of Corrosion 240 5.3 Factors Influencing Corrosion 242 5.4 Strategies for Addressing Corrosion 250 5.5 Case Studies Addressing Corrosion in Existing Structures 258 ChApTER 6 Corrosion Prevention of Steel Bridges 258 6.1 Introduction 259 6.2 Description of Methods for Corrosion Prevention 284 6.3 Factors Adversely Affecting Service Life 295 6.4 Options for Enhancing Service Life: Corrosion Performance of Steel 306 6.5 Strategy Selection Process 316 ChApTER 7 Fatigue and Fracture of Steel Structures 316 7.1 Introduction 316 7.2 Background 321 7.3 Crack Detection Techniques 321 7.4 Repair and Retrofit Methods 325 7.5 Fatigue Caused by Secondary Stresses 335 7.6 Retrofit Validation of Secondary Stress Fatigue 336 7.7 Load-Controlled Fatigue Crack Repair

343 ChApTER 8 Jointless Bridges 343 8.1 Introduction 343 8.2 History of Jointless Bridges 344 8.3 Types of Jointless Bridges 349 8.4 Factors Affecting Performance of Jointless Bridges 354 8.5 Strategy Selection Process 358 8.6 Design Provisions for Jointless Bridges 397 8.7 Details 406 8.8 Construction 408 8.9 Maintenance and Repair 411 8.10 Retrofits 415 ChApTER 9 Expansion Devices 415 9.1 Introduction 416 9.2 Descriptions of Various Expansion Joint Devices 428 9.3 Factors and Considerations Influencing Expansion Joint Service Life 435 9.4 Overall Strategies for Enhanced Bridge Expansion Joints Service Life 445 ChApTER 10 Bridge Bearings 445 10.1 Introduction 445 10.2 Bearing Types 454 10.3 Factors Influencing Service Life of Bearings 471 10.4 Options for Enhancing Service Life of Bearings 488 10.5 Strategies for Bearing Selection and Design 498 10.6 Bridge Management Related to Bearings 502 ChApTER 11 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis 502 11.1 Introduction 503 11.2 LCCA Defined 505 11.3 Elements of LCCA 521 References

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TRB’s second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2) Report S2-R19A-RW-2: Design Guide for Bridges for Service Life provides information and defines procedures to systematically design new and existing bridges for service life and durability.

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