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Suggested Citation:"Observation Techniques." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2007. Impact of Behavior-Based Safety Techniques on Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23193.
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Page 11
Suggested Citation:"Observation Techniques." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2007. Impact of Behavior-Based Safety Techniques on Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23193.
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Page 11
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Suggested Citation:"Observation Techniques." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2007. Impact of Behavior-Based Safety Techniques on Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23193.
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Page 12
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Suggested Citation:"Observation Techniques." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2007. Impact of Behavior-Based Safety Techniques on Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23193.
×
Page 13
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Suggested Citation:"Observation Techniques." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2007. Impact of Behavior-Based Safety Techniques on Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23193.
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Page 14

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

This section describes methods for observing behavior, including OBSM, ride-alongs, covert observations, and com- ments from the public. Note that peer observation and self- management are considered to be both observation and intervention techniques; they are described in the “Specific BBS Techniques” section. On-Board Safety Monitoring Devices New technologies are available that provide objective mea- sures of driver behavior. These in-vehicle technologies are able to provide continuous measures on a wide variety of driving behaviors previously unavailable to fleet safety managers (for descriptions of OBSM devices, see “OBSM Devices Used by Survey Respondents”). Behavioral approaches to safety modify safe and/or at-risk driving behaviors to greatly reduce crash and injury risk. Thus, OBSM devices have the potential to be used in conjunction with behavioral management tech- niques to greatly reduce a variety of at-risk behaviors. Knipling, Hickman, and Bergoffen (2003) suggested the combination of OBSM techniques with other safety-management tech- niques (especially BBS) is likely to be one of the most powerful approaches in reducing CMV crashes. While the logic of this approach is clear, in practice the most important challenge to CMV driver safety management is likely to be achieving driver acceptance of OBSM devices. One key to achieving acceptance and ensuring positive behavior change using OBSM may be to provide frequent and positive feedback and rewards (including financial rewards) to drivers as they exhibit safe driving behav- iors (Knipling and Olsgard, 2000). Overcoming Driver Resistance Most CMV drivers resist the idea of OBSM devices, and such resistance must be overcome for successful deployment. In more than 1,500 interviews with long-haul truck and motor coach drivers by Penn +Schoen Associates, Inc. (1995), respon- dents were asked about their potential acceptance of OBSM devices in comparison to five other Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO) services, most of which were related to mobility enhancement. Drivers supported those technologies that they perceived as potentially making their jobs easier but were wary of technologies per- ceived as invasions of privacy or as diminishing the role of driver judgment. While the drivers acknowledged the poten- tial safety benefits of OBSM devices, the results suggest these devices were the least accepted technology. In general, drivers who had actually used a particular technology, including OBSM devices, were more accepting of it than those who had not. A recent study by Huang et al. (2005) that surveyed truck drivers’ perceptions of data gathered by in-vehicle technologies on their driving behavior found more positive views toward in-vehicle technologies. Though feedback from a supervisor or manager was preferred over feedback from an in-vehicle technology, drivers desired more feedback from in-vehicle technologies as long as the feedback was positive and came from a well- designed safety-management program. From this research, it appears that successful deployment of OBSM devices must overcome the initial bias of drivers by demonstrating the usefulness of information provided by these systems and persuading drivers that such systems will be used for positive feedback rather than negative feed- back (Huang et al., 2005; Knipling and Olsgard, 2000; Penn + Schoen, 1995). Most of these OBSM devices were used to track vehicle speed and/or hard-braking maneuvers. Currently, there are many OBSM devices available to fleet safety managers. While a detailed description of each device is beyond the scope of this report, a brief description of the OBSM devices used by safety managers who responded in this project is included below. Note this synthesis does not endorse any specific OBSM device; the intent is to describe OBSM devices currently used by fleet safety managers as reported in the surveys supporting this synthesis. Observation Techniques 10

11 OBSM Devices Used by Survey Respondents Tripmaster® Tripmaster is an integrated system that records vehicle speed, acceleration and deceleration rates, engine RPMs, mileage, and vehicle location. Extra sensors can provide data on refrig- eration temperatures and use of sirens or emergency lights. Data are collected each second and can be collected via wire- less downloads. A small on-board sensor is installed on the vehicle, and a key can be used to identify specific drivers and control access to vehicles. Primary safety behaviors measured include extreme braking events and speeding. XATA Application Module The XATA Application Module (XAM) connects to the truck’s J1708 bus and collects vehicle and diagnostic infor- mation. The XAM incorporates a microprocessor, wireless communications, and a 12-channel global positioning system (GPS) receiver all housed in an industrial aluminum alloy base with a UV-resistant plastic dome. Two analog inputs can monitor fuel and brakes. These data can be delivered imme- diately to a driver display or reported back to management. The XAM can create “learned standards” about its performance, thereby alerting fleet safety managers when a vehicle exceeds those standards. Primary safety behaviors measured include extreme braking events and speeding. Eaton VORAD® VORAD is a crash warning and safety system that uses radar signals to detect potential hazards (see Figure 3). VORAD emits low-power, high-frequency radar signals from the front and/or side of a truck (depending on the type of VORAD installed in the truck). When the radar detects a potential hazard, a dash-mounted display generates a visual and audible warning that gives drivers critical seconds to take evasive action and avoid a crash. The VORAD alerts drivers to objects up to 500 ft ahead and also around curves. Though the VORAD is designed as a crash-avoidance system, it can track several safety-related behaviors, such as following distance, speed, and lane-change maneuvers. Qualcomm Products OmniTRACS® is a wireless communication and satellite positioning tool that assists companies in locating truck loads and contacting drivers at any time regardless of their location. Qualcomm also offers SensorTRACS® perform- ance monitoring, which collects information from the vehi- cle’s data bus and provides information on fuel, engine wear, and driver performance. This information is delivered to dispatch or on demand via Qualcomm’s mobile commu- nications solutions. The data are also displayed for drivers, so they can modify driving habits immediately and meet company-set parameters. PeopleNet PeopleNet uses the g3 on-board computing system. The g3 allows mobile communications, multi-networking, hardware connectivity with USB support, and GPS accuracy. PerformX™ is a real-time driver and vehicle performance evaluation tool that works with PeopleNet. It monitors the vehicle’s engine to assist in management of operating costs. The PerformX™ monitors a vehicle’s performance by communicating with the engine’s data J-bus; this information (e.g., speed and hard braking) is delivered to fleet safety managers via real-time alarms or scheduled data downloads. PeopleNet also offers on-board event recording. Traffic events can be recorded real- time with the ability to access second-by-second recorded data. Three types of event recordings are available: (1) sudden acceleration, (2) sudden deceleration, and (3) manual trigger. Events can be captured 60, 120, or 170 s before and 30 s after each event. DriveCam® DriveCam uses palm-sized, exception-based video event recorders mounted on the windshield behind the rearview mirror to capture driving behaviors that occur inside the truck and directly in front of the vehicle. Forces (e.g., hard brak- ing, swerving, collision, etc.) cause the recorder to save 20 s of audio and video footage (10 s immediately before and after the triggered event). When the video event recorder is triggered, a light blinks to alert the driver. These events are saved and downloaded directly, via a wired or wireless connection, to the fleet manager’s inbox. These data are supplemented with driver training procedures and coach- ing techniques and methodologies. This feedback loop is depicted in Figure 4.Figure 3. Monopulse lane coverage.

12 Cadec Mobius TTS® The Cadec Mobius TTS uses a 32-bit RISC high-powered processor in its on-board computer. The computer interfaces with the truck’s J-Bus. The Cadec Mobius TTS comes with a driver display that has an LCD graphical touch screen display (readable in sunlight and backlit for night viewing). A driver can be coached via audio and visual cues to adhere to company standards, including vehicle and route performance. Speed and braking are tracked and recorded every second and at GPS locations every 1/100th of a mile. Primary safety behaviors measured include extreme braking events and speeding. International Road Dynamics iRESPONDER™ The iRESPONDER™ Emergency Management Informa- tion System gives fleet safety managers a set of tools needed to encourage safe driving behavior. Reports included with iRESPONDER™ include start time, pickups, stop time, sirens and warning beacons, acceleration, speed, braking, corner- ing, and RPM. Features of iRESPONDER™ include driver authentication and anti-theft device, flexible implementation, PC/LAN/WAN/browser, hijack alert/worker down button, RF/cellular/satellite ambulance tracking, and immediate noti- fication to dispatch of exceptions to safe driving. Ride-Alongs A ride-along is an observation technique where an observer is in the vehicle with the driver while driving on the road. A checklist is used to record observations on driving behaviors, such as speed, mirror checking, turn-signal use, complete stops at intersections, etc. At the end of the session, the observer tallies the recorded observations (e.g., safe or at-risk maneu- vers or behaviors). The observer may also discuss (preferably when the vehicle is parked) with the driver what his or her percentage of safe scores were for each critical behavior (this situation would be peer-observation and feedback). Covert Observations A peer or other observer may record behavioral observa- tions of a co-worker without their awareness. This manner of conducting an observation has its benefits and weaknesses. The main advantage of covertly observing behavior is that the observed behavior is more “natural.” When individuals know that they are being observed, they may purposefully try to behave in a safer manner. If they are being observed covertly, however, they do not have the opportunity to “act” for the observers. Perhaps the main disadvantage of covert observa- tions is that individuals may object to being observed without their knowledge. Thus, covert observation may stifle trust and breed resentment. However, this situation may occur only with certain individuals. Common forms of covert observations in CMV operations include following the driver in a “chase” vehicle and staking out a known delivery location and/or drive location. These methods have other disadvantages; they are time-consuming for managers and do not capture all types of safety behaviors. Comments from Public Comments from the public can include those from clients, the general public, and/or drivers sharing the roadways (pas- senger or large-truck drivers). In the safety manager survey, most fleet safety managers indicated that comments from their clients usually entailed service-related behaviors (e.g., prompt- ness, courteousness, etc). Safety placards, such as displayed in Figure 5, have become popular with fleet safety managers as a way to elicit feedback on driving behaviors from the general Figure 4. Feedback loop using the DriveCam system.

13 How’s My Driving? 1-800-XXX-XXXX ID#022707 Figure 5. “How’s My Driving” safety placard. public and/or other drivers sharing the roadways. Such placards have become popular for several purported reasons: (1) they hold drivers accountable for their driving behavior because the drivers know they are being observed by other motorists; (2) they increase the company’s prospect for reduced crash rates and costs, such as direct and indirect costs associated with those crashes; and (3) they show other motorists the company cares about safety. Safety placards are generally affixed to the rear of the trac- tor or truck and display the driver’s personal identification number and an 800-number. Once the 800-number is called, an incident report is created for both complaints and com- pliments. Incident reports are sent to fleet safety managers or supervisors for review. Typically, the driver is then asked his or her side of the story relating to the alleged incident. Driver statements are added to the incident report and corrective action is taken if necessary. Thirty-eight respondents (58.5%) in the safety manager survey indicated they received and used such comments from the public. Safety placards can aid fleet safety managers in correcting and identifying at-risk driving behaviors before a crash occurs. These data are valuable because they can be used for preventive action (retraining and/or instilling proper knowledge of company safety standards) rather than punish- ment after the fact. Fleet safety managers can receive valuable data on driver behaviors using safety placards, and drivers who have these placards attached to their vehicles know there is some accountability for their driving performance (Knipling, Hickman, and Bergoffen, 2003). Third-Party Monitoring While some CMV fleets may choose to run their own moni- toring service, third-party monitoring companies offer an affordable (usually $12 to $20 per vehicle per month) and convenient way to monitor drivers. These companies provide the consumer with unbiased personnel to record comments. The most comprehensive third-party monitoring services provide their customers with numerous services, including 24-7 coverage; professionally trained individuals; no answer- ing machines or touch-tone menus; incident reports sent via email or fax within 24 hours; compilation of company, divi- sion, regional, and/or terminal statistics on safety issues; and “coaching advice” for the driver’s supervisor. Some programs also offer crash analysis, information on design and imple- mentation of safety procedures, driver’s manuals, organization analysis, operational network analysis, service failure analysis, rate analysis, maintenance analysis, strategic planning, and driver qualification file management. One program offers an affordable service for small (fewer than 10 trucks) CMV fleets. One program indicated that customers of its monitoring service report that approximately 80% of the drivers moni- tored receive approximately 20% of the complaint reports. The remaining 20% are responsible for 80% of the incident reports, and these drivers usually receive multiple reports. This phenomenon is referred to as the “80/20 rule.” Another program estimated 65% of its monitored drivers receive no incident reports, 25% receive one incident report, and 10% get multiple incident reports. These statistics may not be precise but they are indicative of typical patterns. Approximately 85% of the calls made by motorists are complaints (speeding, tailgating, improper lane changes, etc.), 10% are compliments, and 5% are emergencies or other concerns. Effectiveness Several studies, mostly conducted by insurance providers, have researched the efficacy of using safety placards in improv- ing the driving safety of CMV drivers. The Hanover Insur- ance Company conducted a study with 11 different trucking fleets (445 trucks total) using “How’s My Driving” safety placards and discovered a 22% drop in the frequency of vehicle crashes per 100 vehicles and a corresponding 52% reduction in costs after one year (Johnson, 1998). The Fireman’s Fund Insurance Company monitored close to 30,000 vehicles with “How am I Driving” safety placards. They estimated a 22% reduction in vehicle crashes (The Fund, 1999). Great West Casualty studied 78 trucking companies (10 to 300 power units per company) using “How’s My Driving” safety placards and showed a 39% reduction in loss ratio, 56% reduction in vehicular crashes, and a 27% reduction in U.S.DOT reportables (Driver’s Alert, 2006). Similarly, Atlantic Express, which owns approximately 5,000 school buses, estimated a 40–60% reduc- tion in vehicular crashes after using safety placards (School Transportation News, 1999). Note these studies, while suc- cessful, did not provide adequate details on their scientific rigor, thus, caution should be used when interpreting these studies. In particular, studies of high-incident companies that do not employ control groups are subject to spurious results and interpretations because of regression to the mean. That is, the very worst groups or subjects in any sample are likely to improve somewhat in the next observation regardless of the true effectiveness of any intervention. The reduction in costs is not surprising considering that NHTSA (2002) estimates that for every dollar in large-truck crash direct costs (property damage, medical bills, workers

compensation, and insurance premiums), there is an average of $6.50 in indirect costs (production delays, time, punitive damages, administration costs, training, overtime, reschedul- ing, lawyers fees, and hiring a replacement). While insurance companies rarely provide discounts for implementing these programs, CMV fleets that use these programs usually lower their insurance premiums and receive a better renewal rate, thus adding to the savings afforded by fewer vehicular crashes (The Fund, 1999). Conclusion It appears that safety placards are a worthwhile safety- management tool, although there is no rigorous documenta- tion of their effectiveness. The combination of feedback and accountability for one’s driving performance provides drivers and fleet safety managers with valuable information on their safety-related driving behaviors, increased attention towards safety, identification of risky drivers, and information as the basis for corrective action (e.g., training, education, reprimand, or termination). However, there are three significant drawbacks in using this type of process for safety management with CMV drivers. The first, and most obvious, is drivers will only receive feedback if a call is made by another motorist. Not only must the driver display some safe/at-risk driving behavior, but also another 14 motorist must see this behavior and then decide to call the 800-number. How often this number is accessed per safe/at-risk driving behavior remains unknown. A reasonable assump- tion is that motorists contact the 800-number only when an extreme act (safe or at-risk) is committed. Thus, this process is less sensitive to less extreme, but more prevalent, at-risk or safe safety-related driving behaviors. Second, the account- ability and increased attention towards safety the driver ini- tially feels may dissipate over time, a term called habituation (Geller, 2001). Some third-party monitoring services have acknowledged that crash rates plateau after the program has been active for some time, but they also claim that removing the safety placards results in a return to pre-safety placard crash rates. Finally, if roughly 85% of the calls received by a third-party monitoring service or the company’s in-house monitoring department are complaints, the driver is left with the impression he or she will only receive negative feedback. Drivers may become accustomed to receiving feedback on their misdeeds instead of their safe driving performances. This situation may lower driver morale and retention rates. To combat these fears, Geller (2001) suggests “fact-finding” instead of “fault-finding.” Managers are not on a “witch hunt” to ascertain blame, but on a path to correct mistakes in order to keep them from reoccurring in the future. This approach leaves the driver with the impression the manager is trying to help rather than punish.

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TRB's Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program (CTBSSP) Synthesis 11: Impact of Behavior-Based Safety Techniques on Commercial Motor Vehicle Drivers explores various strategies designed to increase safety-related driving behaviors and decrease at-risk driving behaviors of commercial motor vehicle drivers. The report also examines innovative and successful behavior-based safety practices in commercial vehicle settings.

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