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Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
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4

The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children

Estimated at 10–12 million, Roma is Europe’s largest ethnic minority group.1 According to Sarah Klaus, Roma children are a vulnerable population, and their communities are marginalized in many ways. For instance, Klaus reported that there are high levels of infant mortality in Roma communities and the life expectancy for Roma is 8–12 years shorter than the general population in Europe (Rodríguez and Rodríguez, 2009). In addition, as many as 20 percent of the Roma in countries such as Bulgaria never enroll in school (UNICEF, 2011), and only one-third of employment-age Roma are employed (UNDP, 2012). More than 50 percent of Roma in Bulgaria reported experiencing discrimination in the past year (UNDP, 2012).

Klaus stated that although Roma make up a fraction of the population in many countries, Romani children are often overrepresented in institutional care. In Slovakia for example, although Roma account for 9 percent of the total population, 82.5 percent of children in institutional care are of Romani origins (European Roma Rights Center et al., 2011). In Hungary, Roma make up 7 percent of the population, yet 65.9 percent of the population of institutionalized children are of Romani origins (European Roma Rights Center et al., 2011) (see Figure 4-1).

On average, Romani children participate in preschool at half the rate of other children in Europe (Brüggemann, 2012) (see Figure 4-2). According to Klaus, this means that one of the most disadvantaged groups in Europe

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1 See http://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/roma (accessed March 1, 2016).

Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
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Image
FIGURE 4-1 Roma children in institutional care.
SOURCE: European Roma Rights Centre, Life Sentence: Romani Children in Institutional Care, 2011, p. 7, accessible online at: http://www.errc.org/cms/upload/file/life-sentence-20-june-2011.pdf (accessed March 1, 2016).

has the least access to preschool education. She ventured an assumption that of those Romani children attending preschool, the majority are likely from higher income brackets. Klaus also highlighted the lack of Romani preschool and primary school teachers compared to the Roma population (Klaus, 2014). Household surveys conducted by the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the European Commission found that Roma parents would be more comfortable sending their children to school if a Roma teacher was present. In addition to this social barrier, these surveys reveal that the biggest structural barriers to enrolling Romani children in early education programs are the lack of preschools, the distance of preschools from Roma communities, the lack of transportation, and the direct or indirect costs associated with schooling (De Laat et al., 2012).

RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS AFFECTING THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ROMANI CHILDREN

Margareta Matache presented several risk factors and sources of toxic stress that can negatively affect the early development of Romani

Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
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FIGURE 4-2 Preschool attendance rates (percentage) of children aged 3 to entry to formal schooling (age 5 or 6).
SOURCES: UNDP-World Bank Roma survey 2011, UNICEF database 2012 for school year 2010/2011, European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights survey 2011.

children,2 and she underlined the continuous interactions between sources of vulnerability and resistance to stress and resilience (IOM and NRC, 2000). She argued that understanding when and what type of influence caregivers, schools, and neighborhoods have on a child’s development

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2 Margareta Matache is a Roma rights activist from Romania. In 2012 she was awarded a Hauser postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard University, where she currently works as an instructor.

Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
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can inform better public policies, teacher training curriculum, and community programs to prevent risks and create better opportunities for all children. Additionally, she indicated that the social and economic context in which children grow up is a strong determinant of inequality.

Romani communities lack resources and experience high rates of discrimination, stigma, and violence (Matache, 2014). Oftentimes, Romani families are geographically separated from the rest of the population, sometimes by walls built by local municipalities, said Matache. This physical separation isolates Roma communities, cutting them off from necessary resources. According to her, 15 percent of Roma families in Romania do not have access to electricity, 36 percent have difficulties obtaining clean drinking water (Fleck, 2008), and more than 40 percent of Romani children suffer from severe malnutrition (Fleck, 2008). Geographic segregation has also affected Romani children’s access to education, said Matache. Because of discrimination and stigma faced by Roma, children must attend separate educational facilities. There are very few centers where Romani children can be educated, and at those locations there is low-quality instruction from unqualified teachers, she said. In addition, these institutions generally lack resources and experience very high rates of teacher absenteeism. Moreover, Matache reports that there is discrimination and bullying against Romani children in these schools and centers, as well as a lack of culturally sensitive curricula (Matache, 2014). Romani children enter these environments fearful of how they will be treated by non-Romani teachers and classmates, which influences their attitudes about the institution of education (Matache, 2014). Negative relationships with these groups can lead to psychological difficulties or dropouts, said Matache.

Romani children are also at risk of toxic stress and trauma when exposed to forced evictions, sustained discrimination, and ethnic-based violence, said Matache. In her opinion, this is an understudied, under discussed set of factors that needs more attention from scholars, policy makers, activists, and local authorities. She cited incidences in which non-Romani community members have destroyed Romani houses, killed their animals, and chased away their families, forcing Romani families to sleep in the woods for almost 1 month.3 Violence against Roma and forced evictions are all too common, said Matache, and leave children with high levels of stress and trauma that affect their emotional, cognitive, and social development.

Matache emphasized that many Romani children are resilient even in very adverse circumstances. However, resilience in the face of discrimination and violence is extremely difficult, she said. The defense mechanisms

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3 See www.romanicriss.org (accessed February 15, 2016).

Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
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used by Romani children range from social isolation to forming groups with children from their own ethnic group. According to a focus group of teachers in Romania, “In general, they [Romani children] play with each other” (Focus group, teachers, 2010, Craiova, Romania). Yet there are a few protective factors that mediate the risk factors Romani children are exposed to such as quality maternal care and emotional support from family, peers, and the community (Harwood et al., 2008). Resilience to discrimination is often boosted by psychological optimism, self-esteem, high socioeconomic status, identification with one’s in-group, and positive evaluations of the in-group (Son Hing, 2012).

THE ROMA EARLY CHILDHOOD INCLUSION STUDY: RESULTS FROM THE CZECH REPUBLIC

David Greger presented findings from the Roma Early Childhood Inclusion (RECI) report from the Czech Republic.4 The study was sponsored by the Open Society Foundations, the Roma Education Fund, and UNICEF. According to Greger, researchers found a widespread lack of public child care for children under the age of 3. The Czech Republic has one of the lowest participation rates in child care for children under 3 in the European Union, at less than 3 percent, the second lowest after Poland (Ivatts et al., 2015). Greger and his team also found that there is insufficient kindergarten capacity. Analyses estimate that 27,000 children who apply for kindergarten do not receive a place (Ivatts et al., 2015). Further, there are discriminatory admission criteria that disadvantage Romani families, such as a requirement that mothers of children must be employed in order for children to attend school.

The RECI report highlights inequalities in early childhood education and care in the Czech Republic for disadvantaged Romani children. For instance, children from disadvantaged backgrounds had low levels of participation in preprimary education and delayed enrollment in primary school. Compared to neighboring countries such as Slovakia, Germany, and Austria, which have postponement rates of 8, 8, and 4 percent, respectively, the Czech Republic had a rate of 15 percent for the school year 2013–2014. The evidence also showed that up to 40 percent of Roma children (and other disadvantaged groups) are segregated in special schools, called “practical basic schools,” with reduced curricula. According to the Ad Hoc Committee of Experts on Roma Issues, Roma children were 27 times more likely to be placed in a special school than a non-Roma child (Ivatts et al., 2015). Most telling, only 30 percent of Romani boys

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4 David Greger is director of the Institute for Research and Development of Education at Charles University in the Czech Republic.

Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
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and 50 percent of Romani girls initially enrolled in mainstream schools finished their studies in the same schools; most were instead transferred to a practical basic school (Ivatts et al., 2015).

Chapter 2 of the RECI report discusses findings of Roma children in preschool and kindergarten education. According to Greger, the Czech Republic has 600 excluded localities5 and there are highly variable rates of preschool enrollment within them, ranging from 10 percent to 100 percent. Overall, the study found that 28 percent of Roma children ages 3 to 6 were enrolled in preschool compared to 64 percent of non-Roma children of the same age (UNDP, 2012). Of those Roma children attending preschool, 14 percent attended schools in which they formed the majority of students; 28 percent attended schools with an even split of Romani and non-Romani children; and more than half attended schools with only a few Romani children. Researchers also found that financial costs associated with kindergarten presented a significant barrier for Romani parents to enroll their children in school. School fees to attend kindergarten range from CZK300 to CZK600 per month, and meals cost between CZK500 and CZK600 per month. Forty-eight percent of parents said they would definitely send their children to kindergarten if it were free of charge, and another 25 percent would consider the possibility. Twenty-four percent of parents would send their children to kindergarten if meals were covered, and another 24 percent said they would reconsider enrollment if free meals were provided, Greger reported (Ivatts et al., 2015).

A POLICY PERSPECTIVE ON THE EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION ON YOUNG ROMANI CHILDREN

Arthur Ivatts highlighted what he felt were important differences in the national contexts of Romania and the Czech Republic.6 In Romania, he stated that there is free compulsory preprimary education for children ages 5 to 6 for all children, including Roma. Additionally, the National Council for Combating Discrimination is conducting mass trainings for primary school teachers, kindergarten teachers, and school inspectors in antidiscrimination and inclusive practices. In the Czech Republic, Ivatts said there is an ongoing national debate surrounding the introduction of 1 year of free compulsory preschool, alongside legislative initiatives that will facilitate the development of inclusive education.

Focusing on similarities between the countries, Ivatts highlighted similar structural barriers to Romani children’s access to quality, unsegre-

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5 Locations with a concentration of persons living in inadequate conditions and inhabiting a physically or symbolically delimited space (Gabal Analysis and Consulting, 2015).

6 Arthur Ivatts is a senior consultant with the Open Society Foundations.

Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
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gated early childhood education in Romania and the Czech Republic. He cited extreme poverty, low family educational capital, social exclusion and geographic marginalization, and dangerous living conditions. Moreover, he stated that Romani families live under conditions of high stress, with neglected infrastructure, and institutionalized racism and discrimination. There is a large body of research that informs how to remove some of these barriers; this research is supported by the UNDP, the World Bank, UNICEF, the Open Society Foundations, and the Roma Education Fund. However, Ivatts remarked that policy makers are largely silent on these issues, making them a “hidden disgrace” of Europe. He believes that the treatment of Roma in Europe comes dangerously close to the criteria for crimes against humanity.

Ivatts recommended policy change in the form of ratified antidiscrimination laws with enforcement mechanisms in place. He recommended new laws on inclusive education with trainings for teachers and adults who work in schools and structured outreach programs for marginalized populations. Furthermore, Ivatts called for programs to reduce poverty and provide free transportation, meals, books, and clothes to children. Finally, he suggested severe penalties for hate speech and discrimination.

A RESEARCH REACTION ON THE EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION ON YOUNG ROMANI CHILDREN

Radosveta Dimitrova is a developmental and cross-cultural psychologist conducting research with Roma children and families in Bulgaria and post communist countries and territories, including Albania, the Czech Republic, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo, Romania, and Serbia.7 In her research reaction, she focused on two items: what is known about Romani children, and what can be done to support their development and well-being. Dimitrova said that most research focuses on the deficits in the Roma community, such as the challenges and barriers they face and the risk factors that negatively affect child development and later success in life. She instead encouraged researchers and policy makers to focus on the assets in Roma communities and to highlight the protective factors such as strong peer networks and school and community connectedness that promote healthy development. She highlighted that Roma families have the potential for success and that policy makers should build on the strengths already present in Roma communities. She also called for the promotion of culturally informed research, policy, and

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7 Radosveta Dimitrova is the COFAS Forte (the Swedish Research Council for Health, Welfare and Working Life) Marie Curie Fellow and docent at Stockholm University in Sweden.

Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×

practice and to engage parents, teachers, and communities at all levels. When asked about Roma leadership, Dimitrova shared an example of a Roma-led organization, Amalipe,8 that provides educational and training programs in Bulgaria for children and their families.

BREAKOUT SESSION ON THE EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION ON YOUNG ROMANI CHILDREN

Stanislav Daniel summarized the discussion of the breakout session on the effects of discrimination and social exclusion on young Romani children.9 According to him, Bozidar Nikolic of Romanipen in Serbia and Miroslav Sklenka from Step by Step Slovakia discussed grassroots initiatives to support Romani children by working with local professionals, paraprofessionals, parents, and children. They stated that their nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) invest in local capacity as a way to ensure sustainability; once the NGOs lay the groundwork, they expect the government to take over the efforts and scale up programs. One breakout participant highlighted an initiative in Ukraine where, for the first time, Roma NGOs met with state and regional administrators to discuss community needs. Another participant noted, however, that even when municipalities sign memorandums of cooperation with Roma communities, they sometimes do not fulfill their obligations to provide for these communities.

Some breakout group participants considered the increasing number of Roma NGOs and Roma activism as a type of Roma movement, a movement that was not present less than a decade ago. They encouraged workshop participants to consider the activities of these numerous organizations as a greater whole, rather than viewing them individually. During this discussion, participants also mentioned the importance of active involvement, stating that it is important for the local community to feel that programs and services are successful and add value to their situation. If communities are invested in the efforts, some participants thought that this would lead to sustainability. To continue providing for Roma children and families, a few breakout participants urged improvements in quality of service and intersectorial coordination.

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8 See http://amalipe.com/index.php?nav=About&lang=2 (accessed February 10, 2016).

9 Stanislav Daniel is program manager and coordinator of ISSA’s Romani Early Years Network, based in the Netherlands.

Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×
Page 23
Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×
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Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×
Page 25
Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×
Page 26
Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×
Page 27
Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×
Page 28
Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×
Page 29
Suggested Citation:"4 The Effect of Discrimination and Social Exclusion on Young Romani Children." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23491.
×
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Reaching and Investing in Children at the Margins: Summary of a Joint Workshop by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Open Society Foundations; and the International Step by Step Association (ISSA) Get This Book
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The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for 2015-2030 strive for a world that is "just, equitable, and inclusive," in which everyone receives care, education, and opportunities to thrive. Yet many children are living on the margins of society, face multiple disadvantages, and are excluded from full participation in all that life has to offer. To examine the science, economics, and politics of investing in the health, education, nutrition, and social protection of children at the margins, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine held a workshop in Prague, Czech Republic in November 2015. Held in partnership with the Open Society Foundations and the International Step by Step Association, the workshop convened a diverse group of stakeholders from around the world for 2 days of discussion. This report summarizes the presentations and discussions from the workshop.

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