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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
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Chapter 2
Defining Quality

WHAT IS QUALITY? WHERE DOES IT MANIFEST ITSELF? AND BY WHAT MECHANISM?

Both panelists and audience members were asked by discussion leaders to identify where quality manifests itself and by what mechanisms, and to offer their definitions of quality. In conjunction with these questions, workshop participants also offered their views of those measures that they consider to not reflect—or fully reflect—the quality of an undergraduate education.

A number of participants recognized that current metrics are usually focused on economics (cost of the education and graduates’ earnings) or graduation rates. Many participants doubted the usefulness of economic metrics and graduation rates as measures of quality, either in conjunction with one another or in isolation. Scott Swail (Educational Policy Institute) advised against looking at earnings in isolation, noting that earnings are a result of a variety of factors beginning much earlier than the student’s time at a particular institution. Jordan Matsudaira (Cornell University) discussed the example of graduation rates, one of the only indicators tracked at the federal level. He noted that in the 2-year sector, institutional completion rates are almost completely uncorrelated with the post-enrollment median earnings for institutions’ former students, and the correlation is still fairly weak, though positive, in the 4-year sector. Matsudaira reasoned that earnings miss important dimensions of institutional quality, but the Scorecard earnings measures are some of the few quality indicators based on an outcome that students care about and are available for almost every higher-education institution. Paul Courant (University of Michigan) noted more generally that notions of quality tend to focus on things that are easily measured. Several participants, including Alexander McCormick (Indiana University), encouraged institutions to move from an externally focused compliance mindset, heavily influenced by the accountability discourse, to one of professional responsibility.

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
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Is a Core Set of Metrics Possible?

A number of participants debated whether a single definition of quality that applies across the spectrum of undergraduate education is possible, or whether institutions are too diverse. Some participants believed that institutions are too diverse for a single set of metrics to be applied universally, given that postsecondary education spans from online institutions to “boot camps” to community colleges to 4-year colleges and universities. Further complicating the notion of a single set of metrics is the diversity of students, who vary considerably in their needs and expectations, as well as in their academic, social, and economic backgrounds. James Kvaal (the White House) urged the group to focus on these differences among types of students. One participant cautioned against distilling quality into a single number.

Other participants expressed the view that it is indeed possible to arrive at a core set of metrics. Josh Wyner (Aspen Institute) argued in favor of a single, integrated definition of quality and described the Aspen Institute’s four-part definition of excellent colleges, which includes learning, completion, labor market, and equitable outcomes.

Courant offered a small set of quality attributes that might be applicable across a wide variety of institutions. An institution can (1) articulate its goals for student learning and regularly assesses its ability to meet those goals; (2) utilize research to better understand what contributes to better learning outcomes, for example, whether and how well students learn through hands-on activities and other experiential curricula and labs; (3) act on its measurements of quality and makes improvements where necessary (and using information technology where available); (4) provide students with the information necessary to make good choices about courses, labs, and internships; and (5) actively recruit students from underrepresented groups and provides them with necessary supports.

Ellen Hazelkorn (Dublin Institute of Technology) raised the subject of perverse outcomes and cautioned against focusing on a set of indicators that are too narrow, which could encourage types of behavior in student choice that may not fully meet societal needs. She said, “It’s the broad range of things that we’re seeking to look at. … What is it that we are trying to incentivize and encourage institutions to do as we look at measuring these issues around quality?”

McCormick described quality as a three-legged stool built from (1) choices that the institution makes about providing support for student success and incentivizing the right things, (2) choices that faculty make about calling upon students to apply their learning, and (3) choices that students make about spending their time and selecting courses.

QUALITY AS DEPENDENT ON THE INSTITUTION’S MISSION

Numerous participants advocated for using definitions of quality that are specific to an institution’s mission. For example, participants of one small group distinguished between public and private institutions, as well as between

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×

institutions that are and are not focused on research, stating that the criteria for quality may vary between those types. The group encouraged participants to disaggregate models of higher education—answering questions of quality in the context of missions and models of higher education, for example, a residential liberal arts model, a research university, an engineering school, a conservatory, or even a “boot camp.” Kvaal distinguished between postsecondary education programs designed for specific economic outcomes and programs designed to confer broader skills and suggested that “quality outcomes” will vary strongly depending on institutional mission and purpose.

QUALITY AS DEPENDENT ON THE NEEDS OF THE END USER

Definitions of “End User”

Considerable discussion centered on quality as a function of the needs of higher education’s “end users.” Participants from one small group stressed that considering the viewpoints of different interested parties—such as audience, customer, consumer, or investor—affects how one looks at quality. The two primary types of end users discussed during the workshop were students and employers.

Several participants expressed interest in creating typologies of students, each having a certain set of needs and goals. Hazelkorn described how the European Union project, U-Multirank, includes multi-ranking in an attempt to address the needs of different types of students.1 Jillian Kinzie (National Survey of Student Engagement and National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment) noted that her organizations incorporate students’ perspectives into their assessments of the quality of educational experiences in college and universities and learning outcomes. Steve Crawford (George Washington University Institute of Public Policy) and Courant suggested informing typologies with questions such as “Where do people like me, with my attitudes, my interests, my behavioral traits, get a quality education?” and “What are my prospects for success in realizing my objectives at this institution?” Courant considers this approach to be more valuable than seeking broad measures of an institution’s quality.

Mark Tuominen (University of Massachusetts–Amherst) encouraged the participants to include personal development and subjective well-being in the definitions of quality. He called attention to the multiplier value of social and emotional intelligence and the “attitudinal aspects” that complement the knowledge, skills, and abilities that students gain through their programs of study.

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1 See http://ec.europa.eu/education/tools/u-multirank_en.htm.

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×

How Well an Institution Supports Students’ Expectations and Needs

Participants characterized two major types of students as typical college-aged students (18- to 22-year-olds) and “adult learners” (people ages 23 and older who are, or have been, in the workforce). Some participants believed that more should be known about how parents and both types of students determine quality and how they base their decisions about postsecondary applications and enrollment. One participant stressed the importance of listening to today’s students and offering them a platform to describe their views of a quality education.

A number of participants described how students are moving through education in new ways. Paul LeBlanc (Southern New Hampshire University) spoke of the increasing inclination of students to consume their learning in smaller units, leading to more discussions in higher education about “nano degrees” and “micro-credentials.” Sally Johnstone (Western Governors University) described students “who are moving in their own directions, motivated to find the best resources out there, and using their institutions of higher education as a guide to help them get to where they want to go.”

Andy MacCracken (National Campus Leadership Council) believes that many students acquire the foundational skills that prepare them for the workplace outside of the classroom. He asked, “Why are the things that are valued in the classroom, that will get you that 4.0, diverging from the things that will get you the best shot to be successful in your career?” He cited 2015 Students Speak Report on Federal Student Aid & Job Readiness, which surveyed student leaders at U.S. institutions about important considerations for the federal investment in financial aid and the experiences that best prepare students for success outside of the classroom.2

Individual participants described one element of quality: the information made available to students to help them navigate through their courses of study. David Dill (University of North Carolina) stated that “students are making crucial decisions about their future life chances every day on the basis of the information we provide them, which is heavily flawed” and suggested that institutions should examine the structure of the curricula in academic programs. He asserted that the large number of possible courses, and the even larger number of combinations of courses, makes it impossible for faculty to accurately judge the quality of a student’s education or to know how to improve that quality.

Jennifer Engle (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation) highlighted the importance of providing accurate information to students who attend a community college or the local 4-year public institution or whose choice is confined by limited

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2 MacCracken, Andy, and James Scimecca. (2015). Students Speak Report on Federal Student Aid & Job Readiness. National Campus Leadership Council. http://www.nationalcampusleaders.org/wpcontent/files/2015/07/NCLC-Report-on-Federal-Student-Aid-Job-Readiness-July-2015.pdf.

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×

knowledge. She advocated for better structured education pathways so that students do not have to navigate the course catalogue blindly. Institutions should define sets of courses and experiences that students can follow toward their desired outcomes, she said. Engle emphasized that high-quality internal information is particularly important for students from underrepresented groups.

How Well an Institution’s Graduates Succeed in the Workforce

Courant cited a recent Gallup poll that found that only 11 percent of business leaders and 14 percent of the American public believe that colleges adequately prepare students for the workforce, while 96 percent of chief academic officers believe that their graduates are workforce ready.3 MacCracken suggested that, given how often the average person changes careers over a lifetime, the foundational elements of a quality education are the skills that apply to different occupations and fields.

Roy Swift (Workcred) stated that employers often report that universities are not listening to their input on students’ preparation for the workforce. Even when higher education has defined learning outcomes, they often differ from industry needs—especially given the changing nature of the workforce. Because the world economy is changing rapidly, he believes the United States should implement a system for ongoing, systematic communication between industry and higher education. Emily Slack (Education and Labor Committee, U.S. House of Representatives) said that the responsibility for preparing students for the workforce is a shared one, not resting with only higher education or businesses or the state or the federal government. If an employer needs graduates with a specific skill set, then she believes it should communicate and form partnerships with local community colleges or universities to ensure that the appropriate education and training programs are in place—and perhaps subsidize those programs. Swail suggested that the conversation about institutions’ course offerings and faculty positions, which are often based on institutional inertia and failure to consider societal and industry needs, should be reinvigorated.

During her keynote address, Carol Schneider (Association of American Colleges & Universities [AAC&U]) discussed AAC&U’s extensive work with employers to advance high-quality education. She noted that “the bar is being raised for what the economy expects from people who are getting a college education” and “the rising demand for the ability to deal with complex problems, new information and the declining demand for routinized cognitive skills.”4 Ninety-three percent of employers surveyed by AAC&U value a job

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3 Busteed, Brandon. (2014). Higher Education's Work Preparation Paradox. Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/opinion/gallup/173249/higher-education-work-preparation-paradox.aspx.

4 Hart Research Associates. (2013). It Takes More Than a Major: Employer Priorities for College Learning and Student Success. Washington, DC: AAC&U.

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×

candidate’s capacity to think critically, communicate clearly, and solve complex problems more than his or her major. Employers want to hire people who can transfer their learning from one concept or field to another. In addition, 95 percent of employers seek graduates who can contribute to innovation by thinking outside the box. Schneider also noted that 78 percent of employers believe that students need a broad foundation in the liberal arts and sciences and called workshop participants’ attention to a set of learning outcomes cited often by AAC&U’s members and surveyed employers. These outcomes include knowledge of human cultures and the physical and natural world, intellectual and practical skills, personal and social responsibility, and integrated learning.5

Several participants cited professional and basic cognitive skills as important outcomes of a quality education, noting that employers increasingly report these skills as weak among their new hires. LeBlanc relayed conversations with CEOs and human resources directors who have found that many graduates of reputable 4-year undergraduate institutions still lack basic skills such as writing and quantitative skills. Swift noted that industry is increasingly calling for graduates who can understand and identify problems, solve problems, synthesize data and information, and offer solutions. Aprille Ericsson (NASA) explained that NASA seeks new hires with not only strong engineering skills, but also collaborative and leadership skills. “I have to have people who go out there and get it, who will work to the 12th, the 13th hour solving a problem,” she said.

Hazelkorn described data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) that shows a growing gap between credentials and competence. Matsudaira said that the National Assessment of Adult Literacy found a notable decline between 1998 and 2003 on measures of document literacy, prose literacy, and quantitative literacy among college graduates. Kinzie noted that AAC&U’s employer surveys have revealed the same issues about the quality of learning skills. Julie Carnahan (State Higher Education Executive Officers Association), whose focus is on public institutions, said that employers are telling her state-level members that graduates, despite their high grade point averages, cannot perform the work required employers. In response, 12 state-level executive directors have formed a multi-state collaborative to assess learning outcomes.

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http://www.aacu.org/leap/public_opinion_research.cfm. See also Kuh, George D. (2008). High-Impact Educational Practices: What They Are, Who Has Access to Them, and Why They Matter. Washington, DC: AAC&U. https://www.aacu.org/leap/hips.

5 See http://www.aacu.org/leap. For 2009 findings, see Hart Research Associates. (2009). Learning and Assessment: Trends in Undergraduate Education—A Survey Among Members of the Association of American Colleges and Universities. Washington, D.C.: AAC&U. For 2015 findings, see Hart Research Associates. (2016). National Trends in General Education Design, Learning Outcome, and Teaching Approaches. Washington, D.C.: AAC&U.

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×

Participants in one small-group discussion noted the interdisciplinary nature of the skills needed by employers and by students more broadly to solve the complex problems of this century. They recognized that the current university structures were not designed to foster this interdisciplinarity.

Individual participants explained that graduates must not only possess stronger basic skills but also be better able to apply their knowledge in real-world situations. MacCracken said, “A common theme that we heard from employers is that ‘today’s graduates are the best we’ve ever seen.’ But they don’t know how to communicate what they know or apply what they know to different settings.” A basic standard in higher education should be that students can think critically, communicate their thoughts, and apply their knowledge in the field. To this end, he said that higher education should provide ample opportunities for students to gain learning experiences outside the classroom that are incorporated into multiple disciplines experiences rather than treated as extraneous events.

QUALITY FOR ALL STUDENTS: EQUITY AND INCLUSION

Several participants stressed the importance of addressing the particular needs of students from underrepresented groups. Calling attention to what she considers a distinctive element of American higher education—its commitment to excellence and inclusivity—Kinzie stated that inclusion should be a common thread in discussions of quality. Elsa Núñez (Eastern Connecticut University) encouraged higher education leaders to focus on quality for all students, not only a certain segment of the population. Schneider reminded the audience of the deepening divides in college completion: high-income students are more likely to earn college degrees. Schneider said, “We have ascended to a highly stratified tiered system of higher education in which some students are routinely steered to institutions that would give them the fullest and the most empowering possible education while others are steered off to narrow, short-term programs or to apply to those degrees which are devoid of the broad learning that people need to understand the global economy they’re part of.”

Ericsson highlighted a stronger background in mathematics as a key to college success for underrepresented minorities. The students whom she sees succeeding in engineering or technology coursework received strong mathematics education at an early age: “I’m seeing students taking Calculus 3 before they leave high school.” Although some students’ deficits may be due to deficiencies in K-12 education, she suggested maintaining focus on higher education. She believes that higher education should instill mathematical skills in its students, regardless of the level of knowledge and skill they bring to college, as a necessary component to success in STEM careers.

One participant highlighted the distinction between whether an institution is providing a quality education in which diverse students are well supported and

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×

well challenged in their learning environments and whether an institution is capable of providing that education.

QUALITY AS INSTITUTIONS’ COLLECTIVE IMPACT

Participants debated whether quality is measured—and institutions are accountable—solely during a student’s matriculation or a longer, collective time period.6 Cliff Adelman (Institute for Higher Education Policy) reminded the audience that “the temporal framework in which I have to influence anything that you [the student] do is when you’re with me. After you leave me, I can’t control any of that.” Several other participants expressed the counter view that higher education leaders must care about a student’s pre- and post-institution experiences, advocating for a focus on institutions’ collective impact. McCormick, for example, described what he considers a faulty assumption that if every institution in a system is achieving its own quality objectives, then the system itself is optimal. Although this creates an inferential problem for attributing student success to a particular institution, he believes that it is important to approach the quality question from a system level rather than one institutional experience at a time.

Wyner agreed that the post-graduation success of students is an important measure of quality and argued for institutions to consider quality not only from an internal institutional perspective but also in terms of collective impact—meaning how they serve students in combination with other institutional types (such as K-12, other postsecondary institutions, and employers). He believes that a school’s internal measures increasingly need to align with those of other institutional types. Wyner suggested an integrated set of quality measures for which all institutions take some ownership, recognizing that certain elements may be more important to some institutions than to others. Employers and higher education could then compare the common measures against the graduates’ actual performance in the workforce.

Scott Ralls (Northern Virginia Community College) relayed the perspective of community colleges as “pathway” colleges (i.e., not “destination” colleges) that must be attuned to the requirements of the institutions that their students are trying to reach, whether universities or employers. He described how his college must be proactive about developing and using feedback loops with universities and employers and must reach out to both on an ongoing basis. Marco Molinaro

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6 The issue of to what degree institutions should be held accountable for outcomes post-graduation (and to what degree those outcomes reflect quality) is a common aspect of many discussions. For instance, the Gallup-Purdue Index has grappled with relating later life satisfaction to undergraduate experiences. The Post-Collegiate Outcomes Initiative, a collective partnership between the American Association of Community Colleges, the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities, and the American Association of State Colleges and Universities, also touched upon these issues. More information about the Post-Collegiate Outcomes Initiative is available at http://www.aacc.nche.edu/AboutCC/Trends/pco/Pages/default.aspx.

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×

(University of California [UC], Davis) mentioned that the outcomes of UC–Davis students who started at community colleges are sometimes better than if they had started at the university. Partnerships between UC–Davis and the community colleges have been critical in the university’s efforts to improve quality.

QUALITY AS SERVING THE PUBLIC GOOD

Several participants expressed the importance of integrating societal needs into definitions of quality. Wyner asked, “How can we integrate the needs of employers with what the academe’s objectives in terms of civic engagement and democratic participation?” Schneider said, “It is not just that the economy is demanding more, but that our democracy is demanding more.” She suggested that definitions of quality include the acquisition by students of the capabilities needed for an informed and effective citizenry. Carnahan stressed the importance of identifying the parties responsible for the good of the whole: “Is this the responsibility of faculty, institutions, states, or the federal government?”

QUALITY AS CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT OR AN INSTITUTION’S ADAPTABILITY

Molinaro stated that quality requires a process of continuous improvement at the course, program, and institution levels. Goals should be clearly enumerated, and approaches designed to measure the related outcomes, in his opinion. The desired result in his view is a cyclical process of continuous improvement that leads to agreement among the interested parties that the education experience is high quality. Johnstone highlighted the need for institutions to adapt and clearly determine what their students have learned. Ralls asked, “How can that adaptation be made in a way that not only preserves academic quality and learning outcomes, but also causes the institution to thrive and survive over a period of time?” Núñez believed that measures of quality are not static, but rather a delta. “It is how those numbers change over time that is an index of how the institution itself is growing and thriving to fit the realities of the student population and the external environment.”

Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×

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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 Defining Quality." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Quality in the Undergraduate Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Who Decides? Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23514.
×
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Next: 3 Improving Quality »
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Students, parents, and government agencies need as much information as possible about the outcomes of the higher education experience and the extent to which they can expect a fair return on their investment in higher education.In order to better understand the concept of quality - enabling students to acquire knowledge in a variety of disciplines and deep knowledge in at least one discipline, as well as to develop a range of skills and habits of mind that prepare them for career success, engaged citizenship, intercultural competence, social responsibility, and continued intellectual growth - an ad hoc planning committee of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine Board on Higher Education and Workforce, with funding from the Lumina Foundation, organized a workshop in Washington, D.C., on December 14-15, 2015.This report summarizes the presentations and discussion of that event.

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