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Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports (2016)

Chapter: Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations

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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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Suggested Citation:"Chapter Eleven - Rotorcraft Operations ." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23568.
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53 A rotorcraft is a heavier-than-air aircraft that depends principally on the lift generated by one or more rotors for its support in flight (14 CFR 1). Within the category of rotorcraft are the classes of helicopters and gyroplanes. While both use rotors to generate and sustain lift, their operational characteristics are different, as are their operation on an airport. A helicopter is an aircraft that is lifted and propelled by one or more horizontal rotors, each rotor consisting of two or more rotor blades (FAA 2012a). Helicopters are able to operate on most airports without unduly interfering with regular airplane traffic. This study, found that no issues were cited by any of the interviewed airports, other than concerns for rotor downwash and noise generation. A gyroplane is an aircraft that achieves lift by a free spinning rotor (FAA 2000a). A separate pro- pulsion engine propels the craft forward, and the rotors react to the force of air, resulting in rotation and lift. In contrast, a helicopter’s engine powers its rotors in liftoff, landing, and cruise. Gyroplanes operate similarly to fixed-wing aircraft. However, their slow speeds and steep approach angles can result in integration problems with regular airplanes. The terms autogyro, gyrocopter, and gyroplane refer to the same type of aircraft. Autogiro was the original name given by the inventor, Juan de la Cierva. Development of the autogyro in the United States was accomplished by Igor Bensen. He trademarked the name “Gyrocopter” on his particular design. FAA uses the term gyroplane as the official FAA designation for the aircraft. Vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft are hybrids of the fixed-wing and rotorcraft categories and apply to both helicopters and tilt-wing or tilt-rotor aircraft. Each can take off, land, and hover similar to a helicopter and fly similarly to a turboprop airplane during cruise operation. Figure 18 shows a VTOL and a helicopter on an airport. HELICOPTERS An airport that experiences or seeks to encourage helicopter activity will often establish a heliport, helipad, or other designated helicopter landing zone (HLZ) area, such as on a movement area or ramp. The term heliport describes an area of land, water, or structure used or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of helicopters and includes its buildings and facilities, if any. Heliport is the official name for a formalized landing area. A helipad is a small, designated area, usually with a pre- pared surface, used for the takeoff, landing, or parking of helicopters. It can be located on a heliport, airport, hospital, or private area, and it can be an improved or unimproved facility. Figure 19 shows two helipads located along a taxiway and opposite the terminal ramp. The lighting and markings for heliports and HLZs are described in AC 150/5390-2C (FAA 2012f). Airspace Accommodation Airport managers are encouraged to develop operating procedures and distribute them widely. The AIM describes how helicopter design characteristics and user needs often require operations from movement and nonmovement areas at an airport having an ATCT (FAA 2015a). Pilot familiariza- tion with local procedures is important. The development of an airport familiarization map or chart that contains normal procedures and graphic information for helicopter pilots is a valuable tool. The chapter eleven ROTORCRAFT OPERATIONS

54 same can apply to uncontrolled airports. An airport manager does have a challenge in disseminating information about the airport’s preferred flight and/or taxi routes because the FAA does not depict defined surfaces for air or hover taxiing of helicopters or final approach and takeoff paths on airport diagrams. Compliance and enforcement of violators must be spelled out in approved rules and regula- tions. When developing local procedures, communication is a key component of success. Consulting with local helicopter users will go a long way toward achieving compliance. At busy GA, commercial service, or helicopter training airports, separate facilities and approach/ departure procedures may exist. If the airport has an ATCT presence, procedures are worked out with the control tower personnel, airport management, and the FBO, if utilized. If at an uncontrolled airport, airport management develops acceptable procedures in conjunction with the helicopter operator. FIGURE 18 Helicopter and VTOL on an airport (Credit: S. Quilty, SMQ Airport Services, Lutz, Florida. Used with permission.). FIGURE 19 Helipad locations and markings at the Athens, Georgia, airport (Source: © 2016 Microsoft Corporation © 2016 HERE. Fair use.).

55 Helicopters can legally operate in visual conditions if they remain clear of clouds with at least ½-mi visibility during the day and 1-mi visibility at night. The low visibility allowances mean helicopters must stay clear of instrument approach and departure paths of regular aircraft if operating VFR. Helicopters’ advantages are their ability to lift off and land in a small area and to hover in space. If a helicopter experiences an engine failure, the rotors will continue to rotate and generate enough lift to allow it to glide to a safe landing, if done properly. The loss of power results in an auto rotation. The procedure is practiced routinely at airports that conduct helicopter training, according to AC 61-140 (FAA 2013e). However, two airports had AFD remarks indicating that autorotation practice is not allowed on their airports. This was the result of perceived safety concerns about pos- sible interference with other aircraft, reduction of liability exposure, and possible damage to the turf or runway. Any aircraft operation is to be conducted without creating a hazard to persons or property on the surface. As noted in chapter four of this report, helicopters are generally expected to avoid the flow of fixed- wing aircraft in the traffic pattern. Large, noisy, or fast helicopters may integrate into the fixed-wing aircraft pattern if the pilot determines it is operationally safer to do so. Unless terrain, obstacles, noise restrictions, or other operational restrictions apply, a helicopter is expected to use a right-hand traffic pattern. This is partly because a helicopter pilot’s seated location on the right side of the aircraft, in contrast to a fixed-wing aircraft, where the pilot sits on the left side. A helicopter makes turns to the right to allow for greater outside visibility in the turn. Traffic pattern altitude for helicopters is generally 500 ft AGL. However, for large or fast helicopters, standard 1,000-ft patterns may be used. Whereas a pilot is not expected to have extensive knowledge of all traffic patterns at all airports, a number of airports with helicopter traffic list the traffic pattern and altitude in the AFD (Appendix G). There are often variations in helicopter operations at airports that have an ATCT. The controllers are responsible for safe separation of aircraft, and they will specify traffic pattern procedures. If the landing zone (LZ) is in a movement area of a Part 139 airport, the controller clears a pilot to the designated spot. If the LZ is in a non-movement area, the controller issues a “proceed to” instruction. The latter instruction infers the pilot is to progress at his or her risk and discretion. At uncontrolled airports, SOPs from the AIM are to be followed. Problems arise at airports that have not communicated expectations to helicopter operators about the procedures to be used at their airport. Once making their approach to a runway or other designated landing zone, a helicopter can utilize three different types of taxiing: surface taxi, hover taxi, or air taxi. Surface taxi involves taxiing on pavement with the use of wheels. A hover taxi involves progressing along a taxiway within 25 ft AGL. An air taxi would occur below 100 ft AGL. General practice is to not taxi faster than a brisk walk. Ground taxi turns of wheeled helicopters are significantly larger than a hover turn. The greatest physical and mechanical demands are placed on a helicopter as it transitions to a takeoff or to a landing. Helicopter pilots often consider a flight path that will allow for a safe landing in the event of an engine failure or other emergency. In developing local procedures, an airport manager would take into consideration the need for an emergency plan. Other considerations are not conflicting with arrival and departure of other aircraft, effects of typical wind conditions, not posing a hazard to people or facilities on the ground, reducing noise exposure, providing adequate clearance from obstacles, and accommodating expected operational needs of access, fueling, and maintenance. The Helicopter Association International (HAI) produces a Fly Neighborly Guide that consists of best practices for “flying neighborly” (HAI n.d.). Airfield Accommodation Helicopters are classified for design purposes as small (maximum takeoff weight of 7,000 lbs or less); medium (maximum takeoff weight of 7,001 to 12,500 lbs); and large (maximum takeoff weight of more than 12,500 lbs). Typical HLZs are 60 ft2, 75 ft2, and 120 ft2, respectively. Beyond identifying

56 an HLZ, an airport operator needs to consider a helicopter’s movement on the ground, which includes taxiing, parking, servicing, and storage. Design of heliports and helipads for federally obligated airports is described in AC 150/5390-2C (FAA 2012f). Developers of an HLZ at a non-obligated airport are encouraged to use the same AC. Individual states may have their own applicable design requirements. Local zoning codes or regula- tions may apply also. Hospital and rooftop HLZs have special design considerations. The HLZ for a VTOL tilt-wing or tiltrotor requires design consideration beyond those recommended in the AC and requires coordination with the FAA. A major design consideration for a helicopter landing area is its load-bearing capability. Turf is the most common in the United States. Concrete helipads are good for supporting all types of helicopter operations. Asphalt helipads are not conducive to supporting helicopters with skids, as the concentrated weight can result in the skids sinking into the asphalt if it has not been compacted properly. For this reason, dollies, wheel attachments, support pads, or beams are used to distribute the weight. Figure 20 shows a helicopter towed onto a taxiway with a portable dolly. Upon takeoff or for landing, a person other than the pilot needs to retrieve the dolly, otherwise it becomes an obstruction to other aircraft. Notices to Airmen The NOTAM system can be used to convey operating requirements or restrictions, such as an exclusive use area for helicopters or gyrocopters. Appendix G contains sample remarks in the AFD for helicopter operations. Safety Considerations Safety is enhanced for helicopter pilots when they have adequate obstruction-free airspace for approach and departure, adequate clear space for expected ground maneuvers, clear visual lighting and marking, and current information about wind speed and direction. An HLZ can minimize risk to persons and property by reducing ground proximity or overflight of taxiways, buildings, fuel facilities, and the like, and by having an area that safely accommodates the servicing, maintenance, and loading/unloading of passengers or cargo, including passengers with disabilities. For many of the design reasons cited, airport operators often locate helipads away from the taxiway, ramp, or apron areas. A safety issue can arise owing to the locations necessitating people and vehicles to cross an active taxiway or ramp area. Figures 19 and 21 show examples of airports with helipad locations requiring traversing a ramp and taxiway. If the ability to fuel helicopters at remote pads is lacking, landing helicopters near a fuel pump can be a design issue (Figure 22). The same fueling location consideration applies to other aeronautical uses, such as aerial spraying, skydiving, and banner tow operations. FIGURE 20 Portable dolly used to position skid-equipped helicopter (Source: E. Conrad, Lakeland Linder Regional Airport, Florida. Used with permission.).

57 Because aircraft operate most effectively when taking off or landing into the wind, two or more approach/departure paths are recommended, as a way to provide greater safety and operational flexibility during varying wind conditions. The placement of one or more windsocks in the vicinity of the landing zone can enhance a pilot’s situational awareness. Lighted windsocks for night operation are important. A windsock can be located to minimize turbulence from buildings and obstacles and to show true wind direction and speed. A primary safety consideration in rotorcraft operation is the strong rotor wash created. Rotor wash can pick up and throw small gravel at significant speeds. It also creates restricted visibility or obscuration for the pilot and ground crew by blowing snow, sand, or soil (Figure 23). For that reason, helicopter landing areas need to be free of dust, loose dirt, snow, or other forms of loose debris and objects. Turf landing areas are most effective when vegetation is no higher than 12 in. Because it is often difficult for a pilot to see unmarked wires, antennas, poles, cell towers, and similar objects, even in the best daylight weather, airport management is encouraged to mark or light difficult-to-see objects in and around the landing zone area and along normally traveled approach/ departure paths. Guidance on marking and lighting objects can be found in AC 70/7460-1K on obstruction marking and lighting and AC 150/5390-2C on Heliport Design (FAA 2007d, 2012f). Ball markers can be an effective means for marking obstacles such as power lines and guy wires, especially if the markers are internally lighted, have a luminous surface, or are covered with reflective tape. FIGURE 21 Airport layout for accommodating high-use helicopter operations (Source: Imagery © 2015 DigitalGlobe, USDA Farm Service Agency; map data © 2015 Google.). FIGURE 22 Helicopter positioned close to fuel pump for fueling purposes (Source: S. Quilty, SMQ Airport Services, Lutz, Florida. Used with permission.).

58 AIM, AC 91-32B, AC 91-42D, and the Helicopter Flying Handbook provide information on safety in and around helicopters (FAA 2014c, 1997, 1983c, 2012a). The following list of safety issues is derived from the literature search and interviews: • Park helicopters in a way to avoid passenger ingress or egress around the tail rotor area. • Create a safety barrier using hedges to prevent inadvertent entry and to minimize the effect of rotorwash. • Display a cautionary sign similar to that illustrated in Figure 24. FIGURE 23 Rotor downwash is a major safety issue (Source: FAA 2012a.). FIGURE 24 Helicopter caution sign (Source: FAA 2012f.).

59 • Provide access means for rescue and firefighting services. • Provide means for snow removal operations and equipment. • Install wind indicators or an Automated Weather Observing System. • Consider passenger and cargo access to the loading/unload area • Establish a reporting system for unsatisfactory or dangerous conditions. • Develop and disseminate a local hazard map showing power lines, towers, and tall structures in the vicinity of designated LZs. • Develop and disseminate a map showing final approach and takeoff areas and preferred approach/ departure and taxi routes. • Identify preferred taxi routes. • Incorporate best practices from the Fly Neighborly Guide (HAI n.d.) • Staff UNICOM or CTAF and provide advisories. Helicopter Air Ambulance Several of the airports interviewed for this report had 24-h helicopter air ambulance (HAA) opera- tions stationed at the airport [the term Emergency Medical Service/Helicopter (EMS/H or HEMS) is considered obsolete]. Common practices for HAA were to have a dedicated helipad and consistent approach/departure profiles. Consideration of access control to the airport by HAA personnel and transport vehicles was not investigated in this report. HAAs can require different services. One airport staged the HAA near the fuel pumps because no fuel trucks were available. A 24-h operation required on-site living quarters for responders. The landing area had backup power generators available for startup. Access to the ramp for ambulance or support vehicles was through a gate that the HAA controlled. The construction of a dedicated hangar was in progress. Specific information on HAA operations can be found in AC 135-14B, Helicopter Air Ambulance Operations; AC 00-64, Air Medical Resource Management; and Air Ambulance Heli- copter Operational Analysis (FAA 2015h, 2005; Newman 1991). Recently enacted regulations (79 FR 9931) require air ambulance helicopters and commercial helicopters to operate under Part 135 and comply with more stringent instrument flight rules, especially if an airport does not have weather reporting capabilities (CFR 2014). AC 00-59, Integrating Helicopter and Tiltrotor Assets into Disaster Relief Planning, identifies issues to be addressed for safe incorporation and use of helicopters and tiltrotor aircraft; provides general guidance on how they may be addressed; and lists contacts and references that may be help- ful during the planning and execution of disaster relief plans (FAA 1998). Helicopter Tour Operators None of the airports participating in the study had helicopter tour operators based on their airport. Tour operators can have unique commercial operating needs, including building and restroom facilities, access for those with disabilities, and parking. The development of commercial minimum standards can address the requirements. Related Information Individuals interested in learning more about some of the basic data used for development of AC 150/5390-2C, Heliport Design (FAA 2012f), can find a good source of information in the FAA report Safe Heliports Through Design and Planning, A Summary of FAA Research and Development (Smith 1994). While the report is somewhat dated, it provides a comprehensive compilation of data on helipads, heliports, helistops, vertiports, and unimproved sites. Smith also analyzed helicopter accidents and incidents, and hazards associated with rotorwash, obstacles in approach/departure paths, parking and maneuvering, airfield markings, and several other design concerns. Another study, Heliport/Vertiport Implementation Process-Case Studies, provides information, case studies, and strategies for airport operators on the processes involved in the proposal and development of a heliport (Peisen et al. 1996).

60 Noise generated by helicopter operation has been a source of conflict and concern for certain air- port operators and communities. In Docket No. 16-15-02, a recent court case highlights the obstacles to resolving the issue (FAA 2015g). Three ACRP projects are currently under way to address the issue of helicopter noise on airports. They are ACRP Report 02-44: Helicopter Noise Modeling Guidance (available: http://apps.trb.org/cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=3439); ACRP Report 02-48: Assessing Community Annoyance of Helicopter Noise (available: http://apps .trb.org/cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=3694); and ACRP Synthesis 11-03/Topic S02-13: Helicopter Noise Information for Airports and Communities (available: http://apps.trb.org /cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=3897). A key source of information on helicopter safety and risk assessment is the International Heli- copter Safety Team (http://www.ihst.org/Default.aspx?tabid=1507&language=en-US). The team is made up of government and industry leaders intent on addressing the factors that affect international civil helicopter accident rates. A number of safety management system toolkits, risk and liability assessment tools, checklists, and safety videos are available on their website. The HAI also produces several documents addressing safe helicopter operating procedures (http://www.rotor.com/Safety.aspx). HAA operators often are required to provide a training program for hospitals, first-responders, and law enforcement personnel. Topics that airport operators may consider for a similar employee training or for their emergency planning documents are: • Familiarity of the helicopter landing area, to include size, surface, terrain conditions and hazard/ obstacle identification; • Operation of the heliport; • Effects of rotor-wash; • Radio communications and standard hand signals; • Night landing lighting, ground/vehicle lighting issues, and night vision goggle operations; • Personal safety in and around the helicopter during day and night; • Loading/unloading with the helicopter shut down; • Loading/unloading with the helicopter running; • Emergency shutdown procedures; • Emergency procedures in the event of fuel leaks, helicopter fires, fire suppression; • Helicopter evacuation procedures; • Emergency response plan; and • Operation of the fire protection system. The National Fire Protection Association publishes a Standard for Heliports (2011), which addresses emergency response and minimum fire suppression requirements for heliports. The recommended standards for the minimum rating of available fire extinguishers are identified in Table 4. GYROPLANES As an aeronautical activity, gyroplanes function the same as airplanes, requiring a ground area or runway for takeoff and landing. One-seat gyroplanes normally operate as an ultralight under Part 103. If the gyroplane exceeds the weight limitations of Part 103, which most two-seat gyroplanes do, then Source: Standard for Heliports, National Fire Protection Association 418 (2011). Heliport Helicopter Minimum Category Overall Length* Rating H-1 Less than 50 ft (15.2 m) 4-A : 80-B H-2 50 ft (15.2 m) up to but not including 80 ft (24.4 m) 10-A : 120-B H-3 80 ft (24.4 m) up to but not including 120 ft (36.6 m) 30-A : 240-B *Helicopter length includes the tail boom and rotors. TABLE 4 NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION MINIMUM FIRE EXTINGUISHER REQUIREMENTS FOR HELICOPTER CATEGORIES

61 they fall into the LSA category (see chapter twelve). Figure 25 shows a two-seat gyroplane. Heavier gyroplanes fall into a normal aircraft certification category. LSAs and normal certificated gyroplanes are required to be registered aircraft, use FAA certificated engines, and have a registration “N” number. Whether the aircraft falls into the ultralight, LSA, or experimental category determines whether a pilot is required to have an FAA license to operate it. A gyroplane taxis in a manner similar to an airplane, with its rotor stopped or turning slowly. If a gyroplane rotor is turning rapidly, the gyroscopic action makes it difficult to make a turn onto a runway, taxiway, or ramp. Normal operation for takeoff is to slowly taxi onto a runway and commence pre- rotation of the rotor. This takes time and can cause issues with other aircraft in the pattern or on the ground expecting a quick takeoff of the gyroplane. A gyroplane needs to build up rotor speed before commencing takeoff, and that results in a delay. The opposite occurs upon landing. A gyroplane can land in a short distance, but it needs time to slow or stop the rotors before taxiing, otherwise gyroscopic forces may tip the vehicle over. The takeoff roll is short, generally in the range of 300–1,000 ft. Liftoff speeds can be as low as 30 mph. Landing speed can be a little as 20 mph. with a resultant ground roll of 10–50 ft. Most gyro- plane flying is done between 500 and 1,000 ft above the ground, and at speeds in the 50–70 mph area. In the air, a gyroplane cannot stall, as can a normal fixed-wing aircraft. Loss of engine power results in aerodynamic forces working on the rotor to allow the gyroplane to descend in a controlled manner. On approach to landing, a gyroplane’s approach angle will approximate 30 degrees. The approach is steep in contrast to a helicopter’s 10-degree approach angle and a fixed-wing aircraft’s approach angle of 3 degrees. For the previously discussed reasons, a gyroplane will often fly a tighter and lower pattern than airplanes. Establishment of a separate traffic pattern will most effectively accom- modate gyroplanes’ operational needs of slow flight and steep approaches. As it is a rotorcraft, a right-hand traffic pattern similar to helicopters is often used by gyroplanes. Because of their small profile, gyroplanes are somewhat difficult to see in the air and in a pattern. For this reason, gyroplanes are often equipped with strobe lights. Gyroplane noise is primarily generated by the engine-propeller combination and, in contrast to helicopters, not by the rotors. Because gyroplanes normally operate at low altitudes, their noise foot- print can sound louder than other aircraft at higher altitudes. If a gyroplane is classified in the LSA category, it can only be used for recreational or sport purposes and not for commercial purposes, other than for training. This study did not find many airports with gyroplanes because few exist in the United States. This is because gyroplanes were previously only in the kit-built experimental category. With the implementation of the LSA category, gyroplanes are slowly being produced and sold as complete units. FIGURE 25 Two-seat light sport gyroplane (Credit: S. Quilty, SMQ Airport Services, Lutz, Florida. Used with permission.).

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TRB's Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) Synthesis 74: Combining Mixed-Use Flight Operations Safely at Airports documents practices in safely accommodating mixed-use aeronautical activity at airports. Mixed-use aeronautical activity refers to the different categories of aircraft a public-use airport is intended to accommodate in compliance with FAA sponsor assurances. These categories include gliders, helicopters, ultralight vehicles, balloons, airships, blimps, skydiving, aerial applications for agriculture and firefighting, banner towing, aerobatic practice, and similar flight operations. Also discussed are unmanned aircraft systems and radio-controlled model aircraft activity that take place on an airport and can become part of the mix of an airport’s operation. Not discussed are seaplane operations; ACRP Synthesis 61: Practices in Preserving and Developing Public-Use Seaplane Bases covers this topic.

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