Appendix L
Gap Analysis
The committee conducted a gap analysis to determine the average intake of a nutrient that would be needed to ensure an acceptable level of inadequacy in a population (for this report, 5 percent of the population subgroup or less). For nutrients with an Estimated Averaged Requirement (EAR) and for which intake was inadequate, the gap is the difference between the EAR and the 5th percentile of intake; for nutrients with an Adequate Intake (AI) and for which intake was below the AI, the gap is the difference between the AI and the median intake; for sodium, for which there is excess intake, the gap is the difference between the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) and the 95th percentile of intake. For added sugars and saturated fat, the gap is the difference between the upper limit (the value that is 10 percent of the associated kcal pattern) and the 95th percentile of intake. Two gaps were evaluated for nutrients with an EAR: the gap to shift the subgroup to 5 percent inadequacy or less and to 10 percent inadequacy or less.
Results of the gap analysis for nutrients that were categorized as higher, middle, or lower priority in Chapter 5, Tables 5-2 through 5-6 are presented below in Tables L-1 through L-6. Within each priority group, nutrients are ordered from the highest to lowest percent of inadequacy. Nutrients for which intakes exceeded a recommended upper limit (sodium, saturated fat, and added sugars) are presented last in the order. The gap was not evaluated for nutrients for which intakes exceeding the UL were not of concern, as described in Chapter 4. Meeting the gap identified for the nutrients that were evaluated did not result in any subgroups with nutrient intakes over the UL.
TABLE L-1 Gap Analysis Summary for Pregnant WIC-Participating Women
| Nutrient | EAR/AI* | 5th Percentile | 10th Percentile | Median | UL | 95th Percentile | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | |||
| Higher Priority | ||||||||||
| Iron (mg/d) | 22 | 11.5 | 10.5 | 12.6 | 9.4 | — | — | 45 | 26.5 | — |
| Choline (mg/d) | 450* | — | — | — | — | 348 | 102 | 3,500 | 469 | — |
| Potassium (mg/d) | 4,700* | — | — | — | — | 2,952 | 1,748 | — | — | — |
| Fiber (g/d) | 28* | — | — | — | — | 18 | 10 | — | — | — |
| Sodium (mg/d) | 1,500* | — | — | — | — | 3,566 | 0 | 2,300 | 4,930 | 2,630 |
| Saturated fat (g/d) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 29 | 44 | 15 |
| Added sugars (g/d) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 65 | 212 | 147 |
| Middle Priority | ||||||||||
| Folate (µg DFE/d) | 520 | 412 | 108 | 454 | 66 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Lower Priority | ||||||||||
| Magnesium (mg/d) | 290 | 221 | 69 | 241 | 49 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Vitamin A (µg RAE/d) | 550 | 426 | 124 | 480 | 70 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Zinc (mg/d) | 9.5 | 7.7 | 1.8 | 8.5 | 1 | — | — | 40 | 17.2 | — |
| Vitamin C (mg/d) | 70 | 46 | 24 | 58 | 12 | — | — | 2,000 | 244 | — |
| Vitamin B6 (mg/d) | 1.6 | 1.4 | 0.2 | 1.6 | 0.1 | — | — | 100 | 3.3 | — |
| Serum Vitamin D (nmol/L) | 40 | 36 | 4 | 41 | 0 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Calcium (mg/d) | 800 | 773 | 27 | 871 | 0 | — | — | 2,500 | 1,791 | — |
NOTES: N = 165. — = not applicable; AI = Adequate Intake; DFE = dietary folate equivalents; EAR = Estimated Average Requirement; RAE = retinol activity equivalents; UL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level. For nutrients with an AI, the median and gap between the median and AI are indicated. For nutrients with an EAR, 5th and 10th percentile gaps are evaluated. Shaded nutrients are nutrients to limit; for these, the gaps to reduce the prevalence of excessive intake to 5 percent were evaluated. For sodium, this is the 95th percentile gap compared to the UL. For saturated fat and added sugar, the 95th percentile intakes are compared to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans upper limit of 10 percent of kcal.
* Values with an asterisk are AIs; otherwise, EARs are indicated in this column.
SOURCES: IOM, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002/2005, 2005, 2011; USDA/ARS, 2005–2012; USDA/HHS, 2016.
TABLE L-2 Gap Analysis Summary for Breastfeeding WIC-Participating Women
| Nutrient | EAR/AI * | 5th Percentile | 10th Percentile | Median | UL | 95th Percentile | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | |||
| Higher Priority | ||||||||||
| Potassium (mg/d) | 5,100* | — | — | — | — | 2,846 | 2,254 | — | — | — |
| Fiber (g/d) | 29* | — | — | — | — | 16 | 13 | — | — | — |
| Sodium (mg/d) | 1,500* | — | — | — | — | 3,191 | 0 | 2,300 | 4,439 | 2,139 |
| Saturated fat (g/d) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 29 | 46 | 17 |
| Added sugars (g/d) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 65 | 194 | 129 |
| Middle Priority | ||||||||||
| Folate (µg DFE/d) | 450 | 323 | 127 | 360 | 90 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Serum Vitamin D (nmol/L) | 40 | 28 | 12 | 33 | 7 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Calcium (mg/d) | 800 | 664 | 136 | 738 | 62 | — | — | 2,500 | 1,689 | — |
| Lower Priority | ||||||||||
| Vitamin A (µg RAE/d) | 900 | 402 | 498 | 459 | 441 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Magnesium (mg/d) | 255 | 182 | 73 | 199 | 56 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Zinc (mg/d) | 10.4 | 7.1 | 3.3 | 8 | 2.4 | — | — | 40 | 15.4 | — |
| Vitamin C (mg/d) | 100 | 53 | 47 | 65 | 35 | — | — | 2,000 | 257 | — |
| Vitamin B6 (mg/d) | 1.7 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 1.3 | 0.4 | — | — | 100 | 3.5 | — |
| Copper (mg/d) | 1 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 0.1 | — | — | 10 | 1.7 | — |
| Thiamin (mg/d) | 1.2 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 1.2 | 0 | — | — | — | — | — |
NOTES: N = 27. — = not applicable; AI = Adequate Intake; DFE = dietary folate equivalents; EAR = Estimated Average Requirement; RAE = retinol activity equivalents; UL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level. For nutrients with an AI, the median and gap between the median and AI are indicated. For nutrients with an EAR, 5th and 10th percentile gaps are evaluated. Shaded nutrients are nutrients to limit; for these, the gaps to reduce the prevalence of excessive intake to 5 percent were evaluated. For sodium, this is the 95th percentile gap compared to the UL. For saturated fat and added sugar, the 95th percentile intakes are compared to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans upper limit of 10 percent of kcal.
* Values with an asterisk are AIs; otherwise, EARs are indicated in this column.
SOURCES: IOM, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002/2005, 2005, 2011; USDA/ARS, 2005–2012; USDA/HHS, 2016.
TABLE L-3 Gap Analysis Summary for Postpartum WIC-Participating Women
| Nutrient | EAR/AI* | 5th Percentile | 10th Percentile | Median | UL | 95th Percentile | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | |||
| Higher Priority | ||||||||||
| Calcium (mg/d) | 800 | 429 | 371 | 496 | 304 | — | — | 2,500 | 1,301 | — |
| Potassium (mg/d) | 4,700* | — | — | — | — | 1,898 | 2,802 | — | — | — |
| Fiber (g/d) | 25* | — | — | — | — | 12 | 13 | — | — | — |
| Sodium (mg/d) | 1,500* | — | — | — | — | 2,793 | 0 | 2,300 | 4,071 | 1,771 |
| Added sugars (g/d) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 58 | 199 | 142 |
| Middle Priority | ||||||||||
| Folate (µg DFE/d) | 320 | 189 | 131 | 225 | 95 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Serum Vitamin D (nmol/L) | 40 | 30 | 10 | 37 | 3 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Iron (mg/d) | 8.1 | 6.5 | 1.6 | 7.6 | 0.5 | — | — | 45 | 23.5 | 21.5 |
| Saturated fat (g/d) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 26 | 34 | 8 |
| Lower Priority | ||||||||||
| Magnesium (mg/d) | 265 | 121 | 144 | 139 | 126 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Vitamin A (µg RAE/d) | 500 | 145 | 355 | 184 | 316 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Vitamin C (mg/d) | 60 | 23 | 37 | 30 | 30 | — | — | 2,000 | 186 | — |
| Copper (mg/d) | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.2 | — | — | 10 | 1.3 | — |
| Zinc (mg/d) | 6.8 | 4.3 | 2.5 | 5.1 | 1.7 | — | — | 40 | 13.9 | — |
| Thiamin (mg/d) | 0.9 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.1 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Vitamin B6 (mg/d) | 1.1 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.9 | 0.2 | — | — | 100 | 2.3 | — |
| Vitamin B12 (mg/d) | 2.0 | 1.4 | 0.6 | 1.7 | 0.3 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Riboflavin (mg/g) | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 0 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Niacin (mg/d) | 11 | 10.6 | 0.4 | 12.0 | 0 | — | — | — | — | — |
NOTES: N = 62. — = not applicable; AI = Adequate Intake; DFE = dietary folate equivalents; EAR = Estimated Average Requirement; RAE = retinol activity equivalents; UL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level. For nutrients with an AI, the median and gap between the median and AI are indicated. For nutrients with an EAR, 5th and 10th percentile gaps are evaluated. Shaded nutrients are nutrients to limit; for these, the gaps to reduce the prevalence of excessive intake to 5 percent were evaluated. For sodium, this is the 95th percentile gap compared to the UL. For saturated fat and added sugar, the 95th percentile intakes are compared to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans upper limit of 10 percent of kcal.
* Values with an asterisk are AIs; otherwise, EARs are indicated in this column.
SOURCES: IOM, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002/2005, 2005, 2011; USDA/ARS, 2005–2012; USDA/HHS, 2016.
TABLE L-4 Gap Analysis Summary for Breastfed WIC-Participating Infants
| Nutrient | EAR | 5th Percentile | 10th Percentile | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | ||
| Iron (mg/d) | 6.9 | 2.1 | 4.8 | 3.1 | 3.8 |
| Zinc (mg/d) | 2.5 | 0.5 | 2.0 | 0.9 | 1.6 |
NOTES: N = 39. EAR = Estimated Average Requirement; UL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level.
SOURCES: IOM, 2001; USDA/ARS, 2009–2012.
TABLE L-5 Gap Analysis Summary for WIC-Participating Children Ages 1 to Less Than 2 Years: Nutrients with Inadequacy or Excess Greater Than 50 Percent
| Nutrient | AI, 1–3 y | Median | UL | 95th Percentile | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intake | Gap | Intake | Gap | |||
| Potassium (mg/d) | 3,000 | 1,864 | 1,136 | — | — | — |
| Fiber (g/d) | 19 | 8 | 11 | — | — | — |
| Sodium (mg/d) | 1,000 | 1,615 | 0 | 1,500 | 2,306 | 806 |
NOTES: N = 96. — = not applicable (UL gap only evaluated for sodium, for which intakes exceed the UL); AI = Adequate Intake; UL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level. The shaded nutrient (sodium) is a nutrient to limit.
SOURCES: IOM, 2005, 2002/2005; USDA/ARS, 2011–2012.
TABLE L-6 Gap Analysis Summary for WIC-Participating Children Ages 2 to Less Than 5 Years: Nutrients with Inadequacy or Excess Greater Than 50 Percent
| Nutrient | AI, 1–3 Years | AI, 4–5 Years | Median | UL, 1–3 Years | UL, 4–5 Years | 95th Percentile | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intake | Gap, 2–3 Years | Gap, 4–5 Years | Intake | Gap, 2–3 Years | Gap, 4–5 Years | |||||
| Potassium (mg/d) | 3,000 | 3,800 | 2,071 | 929 | 1,729 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Fiber (g/d) | 19 | 25 | 12 | 7 | 13 | — | — | — | — | — |
| Sodium (mg/d) | 1,000 | 1,200 | 2,118 | 0 | 0 | 1,500 | 1,900 | 2,995 | 1,495 | 1,095 |
| Saturated fat (g/d) | — | — | — | — | — | 14 | 14 | 29 | 15 | 15 |
| Added sugars (g/d) | — | — | — | — | — | 32 | 32 | 91 | 59 | 59 |
NOTES: N = 263. — = not applicable; AI = Adequate Intake; UL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level. Shaded nutrients are nutrients to limit; for these, the gaps to reduce the prevalence of excessive intake to 5 percent were evaluated. For sodium, this is the 95th percentile gap compared to the UL. For saturated fat and added sugar, the 95th percentile intakes are compared to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans upper limit of 10 percent of kcal.
SOURCES: IOM, 2005, 2002/2005; USDA/ARS, 2011–2012; USDA/HHS, 2016.
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