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Suggested Citation:"2. Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2017. Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant-Developed Knowledge Within DOTs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/24978.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2017. Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant-Developed Knowledge Within DOTs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/24978.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2017. Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant-Developed Knowledge Within DOTs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/24978.
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Suggested Citation:"2. Literature Review." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2017. Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant-Developed Knowledge Within DOTs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/24978.
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Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant‐Developed Knowledge    Within DOTs  3  2. LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of the literature review was to identify existing research that could inform the process of  developing useful guidance for capturing and learning consultant‐developed knowledge at state DOTs.    In conducting this literature review, the following sources were reviewed:   Publications of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and other federal agencies;  Publications of state DOTs and other state and regional agencies, as appropriate;  University Transportation Centers of Excellence publications and graduate dissertations related to maintenance and asset management;  Transportation Research Board (TRB) publications, including the Transportation Research Record, Transportation Research Circulars, and reports and syntheses prepared for NCHRP and the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP);  The Transportation Research International Documentation (TRID) online database;  International agencies and associations known to be conducting work relevant to the objectives of this project; and  Web searches on common search engines, including Google, Bing and Yahoo. More than 60 resources were reviewed.  Key findings from the literature review are summarized  below.  2.1. Key Findings  Outsourcing Trends  There have been several DOT surveys over the past 15‐20 years that have documented the extent and  nature of DOT outsourcing.  In 1997, NCHRP Synthesis 246: Outsourcing of State Highway Facilities and  Services (Witheford, 1997) surveyed the states on use of consultants for work that was traditionally  conducted by DOT staff ‐professional design services, right‐of‐way acquisition, construction, operations  and maintenance, and training and other human resources activities.  A follow up survey published as  part of NCHRP Synthesis 313 in 2003 (Warne, 2003) found a clear trend of increased outsourcing over  the five year period between surveys.  Design functions had experienced the highest growth rates, but  several other DOT functions were also seeing substantial increases including right‐of‐way,  maintenance, operations and planning. A 1999 NCHRP synthesis focused specifically on outsourcing of  preconstruction engineering work (Witheford, 1999) reported that half the states were contracting out  50 percent or more of their preconstruction engineering, up from 20% since the last similar survey  conducted ten years prior.   A 2008 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report (GAO, 2008) found  that this trend had continued – a 50‐state DOT survey identified increases in outsourcing of preliminary  engineering, design, right‐of‐way, and construction engineering and inspection activities – and a  broadening of contracting techniques (e.g. use of design‐build).   

Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant‐Developed Knowledge    Within DOTs  4  Outsourcing Impacts on DOT Workforce Needs    The majority of studies related to outsourcing at DOTs have focused on motivations for outsourcing,  costs and benefits of outsourcing, methods for outsourcing, mechanics of consultant selection, and  quality assurance for consultant work.  Research to date has been aimed at helping DOTs to develop  effective outsourcing strategies; workforce needs related to outsourcing have not been a significant  thrust.  However, several studies – including the NCHRP syntheses and GAO report cited above have noted  concerns about loss of core DOT staff competencies through “perpetual outsourcing” of key DOT  functions.  These studies have stressed the importance of maintaining sufficient in‐house capabilities  to ensure adequate oversight and quality assurance of consultant activities.  An AASHTO‐sponsored  2003 NCHRP study (Science Applications International Corporation, 2003) reviewed the state of the  practice for outsourcing of DOT project delivery functions. This study noted the importance of  independent verification of contractor performance by DOT staff, and pointed out that agencies using  design‐build construction methods may require more experienced contract and program management  staff.  It cited work by the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (LADOTD) to  develop an outsourcing model that ensures retention of strategic core competencies within the  agency.  In a similar vein, a 2008 internal study at Utah DOT (Worth, 2008) identified and prioritized  core business functions that should be performed in‐house rather than through outsourcing  arrangements.     NCHRP Project 20‐24(14) conducted eight scans related to the changing DOT.  Scan 2 – Innovations in  Private Involvement in Project Delivery (Hancher, 2001) documented experience at several DOTs that  were outsourcing substantial portions of work in multiple functional areas related to project delivery.   Some of these DOTs noted the need to improve internal project management and oversight skills, and  the challenges of finding staff with the capacity and bandwidth to check the work of consultants.     Outsourcing and Knowledge Transfer    The topic of knowledge transfer from consultants to DOT staff was largely absent from the literature.   The most relevant study identified was a case study (Wallace, 2012) of outsourcing and its relationship  to knowledge management at the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KYTC).  The study observed that  “as functions are outsourced and older workers retire, the amount of tacit knowledge contained within  the organizational diminishes if there are not systems in places to capture and disseminate such  knowledge.”  The study recommended that the Cabinet put in place guidelines and programs in place  for employee knowledge capture and dissemination such as (1) formalize guidance manuals providing  procedures for common job functions, reflecting lessons learned from past experience, (2) establish a  mentoring program to provide on‐the‐job training, (3) provide additional opportunities for staff to  meet and share information and experience, and (4) conduct and document results of exit interviews  with departing staff.  Notably, the study did not recommend knowledge management strategies  involving contractors.  Other references that were identified related to knowledge transfer from consultants were focused on  information technology deployments such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) solutions involving  substantial consultant involvement for development, with responsibility for system operation turned 

Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant‐Developed Knowledge    Within DOTs  5  over to agency staff for system maintenance and operation.  For example, the Connecticut DOT  (CTDOT) developed a presentation (unpublished) on knowledge transfer for managers of information  technology consultants.  This presentation provides practical advice with applicability for other types of  outsourcing arrangements, including those related to project delivery.  Several papers have been  written on the topic of knowledge management and ERP.  Because ERP projects involve extensive  documentation (and typically, reengineering) of fundamental business processes, there is a need for  extensive two‐way knowledge transfer between the business staff of an organization and the  consulting team responsible for implementation of the solution.  One recent paper  (Jayawickrama,  2014) identifies four types of knowledge transfer needs for ERP implementation: “know  what” (declarative knowledge), “know how” (procedural knowledge), “know why” (knowledge  reasoning), and “know with” (knowledge integration).    Knowledge Transfer Needs at State DOTs  Several DOT studies were identified that discussed internal agency needs for knowledge transfer  related to project delivery.  For example, a review of three major capital projects at Washington State  DOT (WSDOT) (CH2M Hill, 2013) identified knowledge transfer as essential for improving performance  from project to project, and discussed options for knowledge sharing within the DOT.  An audit report  from Oregon DOT (ODOT) (Garber, 2014) highlighted risks associated with limited knowledge transfer  within the design and inspection areas of the construction program. Both of these studies described  the need but did not recommend specific solutions involving knowledge transfer from consultants.  Application of Knowledge Management Techniques at DOTs  There are several available references about KM at transportation agencies.  However, again, these  resources do not include in‐depth coverage of the topic of knowledge transfer related to outsourcing.      For example, the recent Domestic Scan on Advances in Knowledge Management at Transportation  Agencies (Halikowski, 2014), and NCHRP Report 813: A Guide to Agency‐Wide Knowledge  Management for State Departments of Transportation (Spy Pond Partners, 2015) provide useful  resources for knowledge transfer within the DOT environment.  A paper synthesizing work done as  part of NCHRP Project 20‐81:  Guide to Implementing Strategies to Attract and Retain a Capable  Transportation Workforce (Cronin, 2012) identifies risks associated with insufficient knowledge  transfer including loss of institutional knowledge and decreased productivity.  It identifies several  knowledge management strategies for transfer of both tacit and explicit knowledge.    Several other resources detail knowledge management needs and strategies at DOTs, including:   A 2015 TRB presentation on KM uses an example from the Virginia DOT (VDOT) to discuss the important distinction between information and knowledge management.  Three “dimensions of knowing” are presented related to “how we think, who we are, and how we remember”, illustrating the complexity involved in knowledge transfer.  Distinctions between declarative memory (facts that can be documented) and procedural memory (things that are known but are difficult to describe directly) are highlighted to make the point that it is KMs task to “discern the invisible, procedural”.  Business process mapping is suggested as a useful technique to provide a common basis for ongoing knowledge transfer within a group.

Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant‐Developed Knowledge    Within DOTs  6   A 2009 presentation on “Tacit Knowledge Transfer in a State Transportation Agency” (Novak, 2009) features a case study from VDOT and provides a useful discussion of how to capture and transfer the kind of knowledge that is difficult to convey in words.  A Knowledge Transfer Guidebook developed by the California Department of Transportation (California Department of Transportation, 2012) identifies the need for knowledge transfer given upcoming retirement of experienced staff.  It describes four strategies for knowledge transfer: face‐to‐face: group, face‐to‐face: individual, multimedia, and rotational programs. For each of the four strategies, a number of different delivery methods are suggested, with each of the delivery methods broken down further by categories (what, why, when, how, do’s and don’ts, generic example, Caltrans examples, helpful links/resources). Summary  The scope and degree of outsourcing has been steadily increasing at state DOTs over the last two  decades.  Key workforce‐related concerns associated with outsourcing relate to maintaining core  competencies to allow for adequate supervision and review of consultant work.  At least one study has  recognized the need for knowledge management strategies in order to sustain institutional knowledge  as more work is outsourced and employees retire.  However, existing research and guidance on  knowledge management needs and applications for transportation agencies focuses on knowledge  capture and transfer among internal staff rather than between consultants and staff.    The literature review was fruitful with respect to identifying many elements that were subsequently  included in the guidance.   It also reinforced the value of the current project, given the absence of  directly applicable literature on the topic of risks and strategies associated with loss of essential  consultant‐developed knowledge, particularly related to project delivery.  

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TRB's National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Web-Only Document 238: Developing the Guide to Retaining Essential Consultant-Developed Knowledge Within DOTs documents the methodology used to develop NCHRP Research Report 867: Keeping What You Paid For—Retaining Essential Consultant-Developed Knowledge Within DOTs. The document also provides key findings of the project and case studies used to create the guidance document.

NCHRP Research Report 867 presents guidance on the use of knowledge capture and active learning to ensure that essential, mission-critical knowledge is maintained within the agency when a contractor’s work is finished. Knowledge capture is the process of transforming human knowledge into codified information (for example, through documentation of interviews with key contractor personnel) and making the information available to others. Active learning occurs when DOT staff work directly with contractors or consultants. The report covers knowledge capture and active learning for system management, emergency response, and other critical components of a transportation agency's mission.

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