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24 Over time, airports grow as well as age. To accommodate these changes, new facilities are built while others are modernized, expanded, or replaced. Increased emissions are likely to accompany the changes as a result of more passenger vehicles, more aircraft LTOs, more GSE activity, new fuel-burning equipment, and accompanying construction activity. In many areas, particularly nonattainment areas (see Section 6: Air Environmental Regulations Applicable to Airports), those emission increases must be offset or mitigated. The need to set up mitigation plans with specific measures can be triggered by existing regulatory requirements for ambient air quality, particularly when standards are exceeded, or by regulations or conditions set forth in permits for airport operation and/or expansion. There are other reasons for mitigating emissions as well, such as meeting organizational commitments or adhering to a sustainability plan. 7.1 Emission Mitigation Strategies for reducing emissions typically fall into two different categories: technical and operational. Technical approaches would be changes in the equipment or design of specific emission sources such as purchasing new, cleaner vehicles or making structural changes like increasing insulation of buildings. Operational approaches are changes to the way equipment or facilities are operated such as changing fuels or modifying temperature settings in offices or terminals. In the past 20 to 30 years, airports and airlines have made significant strides in mitigating their emissions. Table 1 presents several examples of emission strategies that have been adopted by numerous airports. It is important to note that the value of these measures when applied to a specific problem has to be evaluated on a case- by-case basis, and a combination of measures may maximize the benefits. Also, measures to reduce emissions from airport sources should be based upon information provided from emissions inventories and/or pollutant concentration information. As such, it is essential to have such information available prior to planning measures. Most of these mitigation measures have been described in detailed in various ACRP projects. Project descriptions and guidance for implementing them can be readily found in the essential references listed at the end of each section of this report. 7.2 Funding Sources There are a number of federal, state, and local programs that provide funds to help airports afford the cost of mitigating their emissions. Most programs are specific to certain sources or applications rather than providing general environmental funds. Funding programs also come and go on a not-infrequent basis, so researching sources of funding whenever emission S E C T I O N 7 Mitigation Strategies
Mitigation Strategies 25 mitigation initiatives are being evaluated is essential. ACRP published an extensive summary of federal, state, regional, local, and nongovernmental funding opportunities in ACRP Synthesis 24: Strategies and Financing Opportunities for Airport Environmental Programs in 2011. 7.2.1 Federal Funding Sources FAA provides funding to support emission mitigation projects. The Voluntary Airport Low Emission (VALE) program was designed to reduce all sources of airport ground emissions. Created in 2004, VALE helps airport sponsors meet their state-related air quality responsibilities under the CAA. Through VALE, airport sponsors can use Airport Improvement Program (AIP) funds and passenger facility charges to finance low-emission vehicles, refueling and recharging stations, gate electrification, and other airport air quality improvements. The Airport Zero Emissions Vehicle and Infrastructure Pilot Program was designed to reduce emissions from airport-owned vehicles and facilitate use of zero emissions technologies at airports. Created in 2012, the program allows airport sponsors to use AIP funds to purchase zero emissions vehicles (ZEVs) such as electric shuttle buses and to construct or modify infra- structure needed to use ZEVs such as charging systems. Other example grant programs include the Department of Energyâs Clean Cities program and EPAâs Diesel Emission Reduction Act Source Objective Mitigation Measure Pollutants Affected Airport Facilities Reduce heating and cooling demand Change thermostat settings in offices and terminals Criteria pollutants, GHGs Airport Facilities Reduce electricity or boiler use Replace insulation Criteria pollutants, GHGs Airport Facilities Reduce electricity use Replace overhead lighting with LEDs Criteria pollutants, GHGs Airport Facilities Reduce electricity use Replace runway/taxiway lights with LEDs Criteria pollutants, GHGs Airport Facilities Improve equipment efficiency Continuous commissioning Criteria pollutants, GHGs Airport Shuttle Buses Reduce emissions Use electric vehicles Criteria pollutants, GHGs Airport Shuttle Buses Reduce vehicle use Optimize routing Criteria pollutants, GHGs Airline Vehicles Reduce emissions from GSE Use electric vehicles Criteria pollutants, GHGs Employee Vehicles Reduce vehicle use Promote car pooling Criteria pollutants, GHGs Employee Vehicles Reduce vehicle use Telecommuting Criteria pollutants, GHGs Aircraft Reduce engine use Single engine taxiing CO, UHCs Aircraft Reduce engine power Reduce thrust takeoff NOx Aircraft Reduce engine emissions Fleet modernization CO, UHC Aircraft Reduce engine emissions Provide alternative jet fuel PM, SOx, GHGs Aircraft Reduce emissions per passenger Increase load factor Criteria Pollutants, GHGs Aircraft Reduce APU use Use electricity and preconditioned air from airport Criteria Pollutants, GHGs Passenger Vehicles Reduce engine use Idle restrictions at curb CO Passenger Vehicles Reduce vehicle use Promote mass transit use Criteria Pollutants, GHGs Passenger Vehicles Reduce vehicle emissions Promote alternative fuel taxis Criteria Pollutants, GHGs Table 1. Example emission mitigation measures.
26 Airport Air Quality Management 101 program, which provide grants for alternative fuel and clean diesel retrofit or replacement initia- tives to reduce emissions. 7.2.2 State and Local Funding Sources State and territorial governments maintain websites with information on and links to programs for funding environmental mitigation. Generally, agencies provide environmental funding for similar purposes. The most prominent state funding sources are departments of environmental control/environmental management and departments of natural resources; departments of agriculture also sometimes provide funding for environmental initiatives. The ease of finding grant opportunities on departmental websites varies substantially from state to state. In 2015, EPA issued a notice of violation to Volkswagen for circumventing EPA standards for NOx emissions on their vehicles. In October 2016, a U.S. federal judge approved the $2.7 billion Volkswagen Settlement to remediate any environmental effects of excess NOx emissions. Eligible mitigation actions cover a variety of categories ranging from zero emission buses, trucks, and ferries to airport GSE. Remediation funds are allocated to each state by the total number of affected Volkswagen vehicles sold. The âbeneficiariesâ representing the states allocate funds according to guidelines that vary by state. Airports and airlines are eligible to request trust funds for mitigation actions. Essential References for Section 7: Mitigation Strategies ⢠Aviation Emissions and Air Quality Handbook, Version 3, Update 1, FAA Office of Environment & Energy, January 2015 ⢠Airport Air Quality Manual, International Civil Aviation Organization, 2011 ⢠ACRP Synthesis 24: Strategies and Financing Opportunities for Airport Environmental Programs, Transportation Research Board, 2011 ⢠ACRP Report 19A: Resource Guide to Airport Performance Indicators, Transportation Research Board, 2011 ⢠ACRP Report 19: Developing an Airport Performance-Measurement System, Transportation Research Board, 2010 ⢠ACRP Report 40: Airport Curbside and Terminal Area Roadway Operations, Transportation Research Board, 2010 ⢠ACRP Report 43: Guidebook of Practices for Improving Environmental Performance at Small Airports, Transportation Research Board, 2011 ⢠ACRP Report 56: Handbook for Considering Practical Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Strategies for Airports, Transportation Research Board, 2011 ⢠ACRP Report 64: Handbook for Evaluating Emissions and Costs of APUs and Alternative Systems, Transportation Research Board, 2012 ⢠ACRP Report 68: Guidebook for Evaluating Terminal Renewal Versus Replacement Options, Transportation Research Board, 2012 ⢠ACRP Report 78: Airport Ground Support Equipment (GSE): Emission Reduction Strategies, Inventory, and Tutorial, Transportation Research Board, 2012 ⢠ACRP Report 80: Guidebook for Incorporating Sustainability into Traditional Airport Projects, Transportation Research Board, 2012 ⢠ACRP Report 86: Environmental Optimization of Aircraft Departures: Fuel Burn, Emissions, and Noise, Transportation Research Board, 2013
Mitigation Strategies 27 ⢠ACRP Report 110: Evaluating Impacts of Sustainability Practices on Airport Operations and Maintenance, Transportation Research Board, 2014 (Includes instructional video) ⢠ACRP Report 120: Airport Capital Improvements: A Business Planning and Decision-Making Approach, Transportation Research Board, 2014 ⢠ACRP Report 124: Airport Parking Garage Lighting Solutions, Transportation Research Board, 2015 ⢠ACRP Report 139: Optimizing Airport Building Operations and Maintenance Through Retrocommissioning: A Whole-Systems Approach, Transportation Research Board, 2015 ⢠ACRP Report 141: Renewable Energy as an Airport Revenue Source, Transporta- tion Research Board, 2015 ⢠ACRP Report 146: Commercial Ground Transportation at Airports: Best Practices, Transportation Research Board, 2015 ⢠ACRP Report 148: LED Airfield Lighting System Operation and Maintenance, Transportation Research Board, 2015 ⢠ACRP Report 158: Deriving Benefits from Alternative Aircraft-Taxi Systems, Transportation Research Board, 2016 Essential References for Section 7: Mitigation Strategies (Continued)
