References

Bauer, M. S., L. Damschroder, H. Hagedorn, J. Smith, and A. M. Kilbourne. 2015. An introduction to implementation science for the non-specialist. BMC Psychology 3(1):32.

Baxter, N. T., A. W. Schmidt, A. Venkataraman, K. S. Kim, C. Waldron, T. M. Schmidt. 2019. Dynamics of human gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids in response to dietary interventions with three fermentable fibers. mBio 10(1):e02566-18.

Bellman, K., and C. Landauer. 2000. Towards an integration science: The influence of Richard Bellman on our research. Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications 249(1):3–31.

Berni Canani, R., N. Sangwan, A. T. Stefka, R. Nocerino, L. Paparo, R. Aitoro, A. Calignano, A. A. Khan, J. A. Gilbert, and C. R. Nagler. 2016. Lactobacillus rhamnosus gg-supplemented formula expands butyrate-producing bacterial strains in food allergic infants. ISME Journal: Multidisciplinary Journal of Microbial Ecology 10(3):742–750.

Billingsley, H. E., S. Carbone, and C. J. Lavie. 2018. Dietary fats and chronic noncommunicable diseases. Nutrients 10(10):1385.

Binagwaho, A., P. E. Farmer, S. Nsanzimana, C. Karema, M. Gasana, J. D. Ngirabega, F. Ngabo, C. M. Wagner, C. T. Nutt, T. Nyatanyi, M. Gatera, Y. Kayiteshonga, C. Mugeni, P. Mugwaneza, J. Shema, P. Uwaliraye, E. Gaju, M. A. Muhimpundu., T. Dushime, F. Senyana, J. B. Mazarati, C. M. Muzayire, L. Tuyisenge, V. Mutabazi, P. Kyamanywa, V. Rusanganwa, J. P. Nyemazi, A. Umutoni, I. Kankindi, C. Ntizimira, H. Ruton, N. Mugume, D. Nkunda, E. Ndenga, J. M. Mubiligi, J. P. Kakoma, E. Karita, C. Sekabaraga, E. Rusingiza, M. L. Rich, J. S. Mukherjee, J. Rhatigan, C. Concedda, D. Bertrand-Farmer, G. Bukhman, S. N. Stulac, N. M. Tapela, C. van der Hoof Holstein, L. N. Shulman, A. Habinshit, M. H. Bonds, M. S. Wilkes, C. Lu, M. C. Smith-Fawzi, J. D. Swain, M. P. Murphy, A. Ricks, V. B. Kerry, B. P. Bush, R. W. Seigler, C. S. Stern, A. Sliney, T. Nuthulaganti, I. Karangwa, E. Pegurri, O. Dahl, and P. C. Drobac. 2014. Rwanda 20 years on: investing in life. Lancet 384(9940):371–375.

Blacher, E., M. Levy, E. Tatirovsky, and E. Elinav. 2017. Microbiome-modulated metabolites at the interface of host immunity. Journal of Immunology 198(2):572–580.

Blaser, M. 2014. Missing microbes. London, UK: Oneworld Publications.

Blitz, J., M. S. Riddle, and C. K. Porter. 2018. The risk of chronic gastrointestinal disorders following acute infection with intestinal parasites. Frontiers of Microbiology 9:17.

Bloomfield, G. S., J. W. Hogan, A. Keter, E. Sang, E. J. Carter, E. J. Velazquez, and S. Kimaiyo. 2011. Hypertension and obesity as cardiovascular risk factors among HIV seropositive patients in western Kenya. PLoS One 6(7):e22288.

Bokulich, N. A., J. Chung, T. Battaglia, N. Henderson, M. Jay, H. Li, A. D. Leiber, F. Wu, G. I. Perez-Perez, Y. Chen, W. Schweizer, X. Zheng, M. Contreras, M. G. Dominguez-Bello, and M. J. Blaser. 2016. Antibiotics, birth mode, and diet shape microbiome maturation during early life. Science Translational Medicine 8(343):343–382.

Bollrath, J, and F. Powrie. 2013. Feed your tregs more fiber. Science 341(6145):463–464.

Bourne, R. R, G. A. Stevens, R. A. White, J. L. Smith, S. R. Flaxman, H. Price, J. B. Jonas, J. Keeffe, J. Leasher, K. Naidoo, K. Pesudovs, S. Resnikoff, and H. R Taylor. 2013. Causes of vision loss worldwide, 1990-2010: A systematic analysis. Lancet Global Health 1(6):339–349.

Bright Focus Foundation. 2017. Amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. https://www.brightfocus.org/alzheimers-disease/infographic/amyloid-plaques-and-neurofibrillarytangles (accessed September 19, 2019).

Bukhman, G. 2019. Addressing the convergence with “integration science.” PowerPoint presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Bukhman, G., C. Bavuma, C. Gishoma, N. Gupta, G. F. Kwan, R. Laing, and D. Beran. 2015. Endemic diabetes in the world’s poorest people. Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology 3(6):402–403.

Burnett-Hartman, A. N., P. A. Newcomb, and J. D. Potter. 2008. Infectious agents and colorectal cancer. A review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 17(11):2970–2979.

Bygbjerg, I. C. 2012. Double burden of noncommunicable and infectious diseases in developing countires. Science 337(6101):1499–1501.

Cao, W., and H. Zheng. 2018. Peripheral immune system in aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Molecular Neurodegeneration 13(1):51.

Caporaso, J. G., J. Kuczynski, J. Stombaugh, K. Bittinger, F. D. Bushman, E. K. Costello, N. Fierer, A. G. Pena, J. K. Goodrich, J. I. Gordon, G. A. Huttley, S. T. Kelley, D. Knights, J. E. Koenig, R. E. Ley, C. A. Lozupone, D. McDonald, B. D. Muegge, M. Pirrung, J. Reeder, J. R. Sevinsky, P. J. Turnbaugh, W. A. Walters, J. Widmann, T. Yatsunenko, J. Zaneveld, and R. Knight. 2010. Qiime allows analysis of high-throughput community sequencing data. Nature Methods 7(5):335–336.

Carruth, L., and E. Mendenhall. 2019. “Wasting away”: Diabetes, food insecurity, and medical insecurity in the Somali region of Ethiopia. Social Science and Medicine 228:155–163.

Carson, R. 1962. Silent spring. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Chang, M. H. 2011. Hepatitis B virus and cancer prevention. In Recent results in cancer research, Vol. 188, edited by H. J. Senn and F. Otto. Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. Pp. 75–84.

Charu, V., G. Chowell, L. S. Palacio Mejia, S. Echevarría-Zuno, V. H. Borja-Aburto, L. Simonsen, M. A. Miller, and C. Viboud. 2011. Mortality burden of the A/H1N1 pandemic in Mexico: A comparison of deaths and years of life lost to seasonal influenza. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 53(10):985–993.

Clemente, J. C., E. C. Pehrsson, M. J. Blaser, K. Sandhu, Z. Gao, B. Wang, M. Magris, G. Hidalgo, M. Contreras, Ó. Noya-Alarcón, O. Lander, J. McDonald, M. Cox, J. Walter, P. L. Oh, J. F. Ruiz, S. Rodriguez, N. Shen, S. J. Song, J. Metcalf, R. Knight, G. Dantas, and M. G. Dominguez-Bello. 2015. The microbiome of uncontacted Amerindians. Science Advances 1(3):e1500183.

Coelho, L. P., J. R. Kultima, P. I. Costea, C. Fournier, Y. Pan, G. Czarnecki-Maulden, M. R. Hayward, S. K. Forslund, T. S. B. Schmidt, P. Descombes, J. R. Jackson, Q. Li, and P. Bork. 2018. Similarity of the dog and human gut microbiomes in gene content and response to diet. Microbiome 6(1):72.

Cohen, J. I. 2000. Epstein-Barr virus infection. New England Journal of Medicine 343(7):481–492.

Coles, C. L., J. C. Seidman, J. Levens, H. Mkocha, B. Munoz, and S. West. 2011. Association of mass treatment with azithromycin in trachoma-endemic communities with short-term reduced risk of diarrhea in young children. American Journal of Tropical Medicine 85(4):691–696.

Cox, J. T., M. J. Kasubi, B. E. Muñoz, A. I. Zambrano, G. S. Greene, H. Mkocha, M. A. Wolle, and S. K. West. 2017. Trachomatous scarring and infection with non-chlamydia trachomatis bacteria in women in Kongwa, Tanzania. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 58(7):3249–3253.

Critchley, J. A., I. M. Carey, T. Harris, S. DeWilde, F. J. Hosking, and D. G. Cook. 2018. Glycemic control and risk of infections among people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes in a large primary care cohort study. Diabetes Care 41(10):2127–2135.

Cully, M. 2018. Inflammasome protein seeds plaques in Alzheimer disease. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 17:96.

Davies, R. 2018. Rachel Nugent: Global health economist making NCDs count. Lancet 391(10134):1987.

de Diego, I., F. T. Veillard, T. Guevara, B. Potempa, M. Sztukowska, J. Potempa, and F. X. Gomis-Ruth. 2013. Porphyromonas gingivalis virulence factor ginigpain RgpB shows a unique zymogenic mechanism for cysteine peptidases. Journal of Biological Chemistry 288(20):14287–14296.

Deng, Y., and B. P. Tsao. 2014. Advances in lupus genetics and epigenetics. Current Opinion in Rheumatology 26(5):482–492.

Ding, D., K. Gebel, P. Phongsavan, A. E. Bauman, and D. Merom. 2014. Driving: A road to unhealthy lifestyles and poor health outcomes. PLoS One 9(6):e94602.

Dionisio-Santos, D. A., J. A. Olschowka, and M. K. O’Banion. 2019. Exploiting microglial and peripheral immune cell crosstalk to treat Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neuroinflammation 16(1):74.

Dominguez-Bello, M. G. 2019. Gestational shaping of the maternal vaginal microbiome. Nature Medicine 25:882–883.

Dominguez-Bello, M. G., E. K. Costello, M. Contreras, M. Magris, G. Hidalgo, N. Fierer, and R. Knight. 2010. Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107:11971–11975.

Dominguez-Cherit, G., S. E. Lapinsky, A. E. Macias, R. Pinto, L. Espinosa-Perez, A. de la Torre, M. Poblano-Morales, J. A. Baltazar-Torres, E. Bautista, A. Martinez, M. A. Martinez, E. Rivero, R. Valdez, G. Ruiz-Palacios, M. Hernandez, T. E. Stewart, and R. A. Fowler. 2009. Critically ill patients with 2009 influenza A(H1N1) in Mexico. JAMA 302(17):1880–1887.

Dominy, S. S., C. Lynch, F. Ermini, M. Benedyk, A. Marczyk, A. Konradi, M. Nguyen, U. Haditsch, D. Raha, C. Griffin, L. J. Holsinger, S. Arastu-Kapur, S. Kaba, A. Lee, M. I. Ryder, B. Potempa, P. Mydel, A. Hellvard, K. Adamowicz, H. Hasturk, G. D. Walker, E. C. Reynolds, R. L. M. Faull, M. A. Curtis, M. Dragunow, and J. Potempa. 2019. Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer’s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors. Science Advances 5(1):eaau3333.

Eberly, L. A., E. Rusingiza, P. H. Park, G. Ngoga, S. Dusabeyezu, F. Mutabazi, E. Harerimana, J. Mucumbitsi, P. F. Nyembo, R. Borg, C. Gahamanyi, C. Mutumbira, E. Ntaganda, C. Rusangwa, G. F. Kwan, and G. Bukhman. 2018a. Nurse-driven echocardiography and management of heart failure at district hospitals in rural Rwanda. Circulatory and Cardiovascular Quality Outcomes 11(12):e004881.

Eberly, L. A., E. Rusingiza, P. H. Park, G. Ngoga, S. Dusabeyezu, F. Mutabazi, E. Harerimana, J. Mucumbitsi, P. F. Nyembo, R. Borg, C. Gahamanyi, C. Mutumbira, E. Ntaganda, C. Rusangwa, G. F. Kwan, and G. Bukhman. 2018b. Understanding the etiology of heart failure among the rural poor in sub-Saharan Africa: A 10-year experience from district hospitals in Rwanda. Journal of Cardiac Failure 24(12):849–853.

Eberly, L. A., E. Rusingiza, P. H. Park, G. Ngoga, S. Dusabeyezu, F. Mutabazi, C. Gahamanyi, E. Ntaganda, G. F. Kwan, and G. Bukhman. 2019. 10-year heart failure outcomes from nurse-driven clinics in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 73(8):977–980.

Einterz, R. M., S. Kimaiyo, H. N. Mengech, B. O. Khwa-Otsyula, F. Esamai, F. Quigley, and J. J. Mamlin. 2007. Responding to the HIV pandemic: The power of an academic medical partnership. Academic Medicine 82(8):812–818.

El-Sadr, W. M., K. Harripersaud, and M. Rabkin. 2017. Reaching global HIV/AIDS goals: What got us here, won’t get us there. PLoS Medicine 14(11):e1002421.

El-Sadr, W. M., K. H. Mayer, M. Rabkin, and S. L. Hodder. 2019. AIDS in America—Back in the headlines at long last. New England Journal of Medicine 380(21):1985–1987.

Endriz, J., P. P. Ho, and L. Steinman. 2017. Time correlation between mononucleosis and initial symptoms of MS. Neurology: Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation 4(3):e308.

Essue, B. M., M. Laba, F. Knaul, A. Chu, H. V. Minh, T. K. P. Nguyen, and S. Jan. 2017. Economic burden of chronic ill health and injuries for households in low- and middle-income countries. In Disease control priorities: Improving health and reducing poverty, edited by D. T. Jamison, H. Gelband, S. Horton, P. Jha, R. Laxminarayan, C. N. Mock, and R. Nugent. Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.

Ezeh, A., O. Oyebode, D. Satterthwaite, Y. F. Chen, R. Ndugwa, J. Sartori, B. Mberu, G. J. Melendez-Torres, T. Haregu, S. I. Watson, W. Caiaffa, A. Capon, and R. J. Lilford. 2017. The history, geography, and sociology of slums and the health problems of people who live in slums. Lancet 389(10068):547–558.

FAIR Health. 2017. Food allergy in the United States: Recent trends and costs: An analysis of private claims data. New York: FAIR Health, Inc.

Faith, J. J., N. P. McNulty, F. E. Rey, and J. I. Gordon. 2011. Predicting a human gut microbiota’s response to diet in gnobiotic mice. Science 333(6038):101–104.

FARE (Food Allergy Research & Education). 2019. New prevalence numbers demand an aggressive call to action. https://www.foodallergy.org/about-fare/blog/new-prevalence-numbers-demand-an-aggressive-call-to-action (accessed September 20, 2019).

Farmer, P., J. Y. Kim, A. Kleinman, and M. Basilico. 2013. Reimagining global health: An introduction. Vol. 26. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Feehley, T., C. H. Plunkett, R. Bao, S. M. Choi Hong, E. Culleen, P. Belda-Ferre, E. Campbell, R. Aitoro, R. Nocerino, L. Paparo, J. Andrade, D. A. Antonopoulos, R. Berni Canani, and C. R. Nagler. 2019. Healthy infants harbor intestinal bacteria that protect against food allergy. Nature Medicine 25(3):448–453.

Forbes, J. D., G. Van Domselaar, and C. N. Bernstein. 2016. The gut microbiota in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Frontiers in Microbiology 7:1081.

Francis, A. P., and M. G. Dominguez-Bello. 2019. Early-life microbiota perturbations and behavioral effects. Trends in Microbiology 27(7):567–569.

Frati, F., C. Salvatori, C. Incorvaia, A. Bellucci, G. Di Cara, F. Marcucci, and S. Esposito. 2018. The role of the microbiome in asthma: The gut-lung axis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20(1):123.

Frieden, T. R. 2010. A framework for public health action: The health impact pyramid. American Journal of Public Health 100(4):590–595.

Gebre, T., B. Ayele, M. Zerihun, A. Genet, N. E. Stoller, Z. Zhou, J. I. House, S. N. Yu, K. J. Ray, P. M. Emerson, J. D. Keenan, T. C. Porco, T. M. Lietman, and B. D. Gaynor. 2012. Comparison of annual versus twice-yearly mass azithromycin treatment for hyperendemic trachoma in Ethiopia: A cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 379(9811):143–151.

Ghosh, T., S. K. Srivastava, A. Gaurav, A. Kumar, P. Kumar, A. S. Yadav, R. Pathania, and N. K. Navani. 2019. A combination of linalool, vitamin C, and copper synergistically triggers reactive oxygen species and DNA damage and inhibits Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar typhi and Vibrio fluvialis. Applied Environmental Microbiology 85(4).

Gibson, M. K., T. S. Crofts, and G. Dantas. 2015. Antibiotics and the developing infant gut microbiota and resistome. Current Opinion in Microbiology 27:51–56.

Gilbert, J. A., J. K. Jansson, and R. Knight. 2014. The Earth Microbiome Project: Successes and aspirations. BMC Biology 12:69.

Golding, N., R. Burstein, J. Longbottom, A. J. Browne, N. Fullman, A. Osgood-Zimmerman, L. Earl, S. Bhatt, E. Cameron, D. C. Casey, L. Dwyer-Lindgren, T. H. Farag, A. D. Flaxman, M. S. Fraser, P. W. Gething, H. S. Gibson, N. Graetz, L. K. Krause, X. R. Kulikoff, S. S. Lim, B. Mappin, C. Morozoff, R. C. Reiner, Jr., A. Sligar, D. L. Smith, H. Wang, D. J. Weiss, C. J. L. Murray, C. L. Moyes, and S. I. Hay. 2017. Mapping under-5 and neonatal mortality in Africa, 2000-15: A baseline analysis for the Sustainable Development Goals. Lancet 390(10108):2171–2182.

Gonçalves, D. U., F. A. Proietti, J. G. R. Ribas, M. G. Araújo, S. R. Pinheiro, A. C. Guedes, and A. B. F. Carneiro-Proietti. 2010. Epidemiology, treatment, and prevention of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1-associated diseases. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 23(3):577–589.

Goodrich, J. K., S. C. Di Rienzi, A. C. Poole, O. Koren, W. A. Walters, J. G. Caporaso, R. Knight, and R. E. Ley. 2014. Conducting a microbiome study. Cell 158(2):250–262.

Gosztyla, M. L., H. M. Brothers, and S. R. Robinson. 2018. Alzheimer’s amyloid-beta is an antimicrobial peptide: A review of the evidence. Journal of Alzheimers Disease 62(4):1495–1506.

Graves, D. T., and R. A. Kayal. 2008. Diabetic complications and dysregulated innate immunity. Frontiers in Bioscience: A Journal and Virtual Library 13:1227–1239.

Gravitt, P. E., M. Marks, M. Kosek, C. Huang, L. Cabrera, M. P. Olortegui, A. M. Medrano, D. R. Trigoso, S. Qureshi, G. S. Bardales, J. Manrique-Hinojosa, A. Z. Cardenas, M. A. Larraondo, J. Cok, F. Qeadan, M. Siracusa, and R. H. Gilman. 2016. Soil-transmitted helminth infections are associated with an increase in human papillomavirus prevalence and a T-helper type 2 cytokine signature in cervical fluids. Journal of Infectious Diseases 213(5):723–730.

Grint, D., B. Alisjhabana, C. Ugarte-Gil, A. L. Riza, G. Walzl, F. Pearson, R. Ruslami, D. A. J. Moore, M. Ioana, S. McAllister, K. Ronacher, R. C. Koeseomadinata, S. R. Kerry-Barnard, J. Coronel, S. T. Malherbe, H. M. Dockrell, P. C. Hill, R. Van Crevel, and J. A. Critchley. 2018. Accuracy of diabetes screening methods used for people with tuberculosis, Indonesia, Peru, Romania, South Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 96(11):738–749.

Guan, Y., D. Jakimovski, M. Ramanathan, B. Weinstock-Guttman, and R. Zivadinov. 2019. The role of Epstein-Barr virus in multiple sclerosis: From molecular pathophysiology to in vivo imaging. Neural Regeneration Research 14(3):373–386.

Guang, C., J. Chen, S. Sang, and S. Cheng. 2014. Biological functionality of soyasaponins and soyasapogenols. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(33):8247–8255.

Gupta, N., and G. Bukhman. 2015. Leveraging the lessons learned from HIV/AIDS for coordinated chronic care delivery in resource-poor settings. Healthcare (Amsterdam) 3(4):215–220.

Gupta, R. S., C. M. Warren, B. M. Smith, J. A. Blumenstock, J. Jiang, M. M. Davis, and K. C. Nadeau. 2018. The public health impact of parent-reported childhood food allergies in the United States. Pediatrics 142(6).

Gupta, R. S., C. M. Warren, B. M. Smith, J. Jiang, J. A. Blumenstock, M. M. Davis, R. P. Schleimer, and K. C. Nadeau. 2019. Prevalence and severity of food allergies among US adults. JAMA Network Open 2(1):e185630.

Habineza, H., C. Mutumbira, B. L. Hedt-Gauthier, R. Borg, N. Gupta, N. Tapela, S. Dusabeyezu, G. Ngoga, E. Harerimana, E. Mpanumusingo, E. Ngabireyimana, E. Rusingiza, and G. Bukhman. 2017. Treating persistent asthma in rural Rwanda: Characteristics, management and 24-month outcomes. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 21(10):1176–1182.

Hadley, C. 2006. The infection connection. Helicobacter pylori is more than just the cause of gastric ulcers—it offers an unprecedented opportuity to study changes in human microecoogy and the nature of chronic disease. EMBO Reports 7(5):470–473.

Haque, S. S. 2012. Impact of nitric oxide precursor l-arginine on oxidative stress against typhoid. Bratislava Medical Journal 113(10):589–591.

Harding, A., U. Gonder, S. J. Robinson, S. Crean, and S. K. Singhrao. 2017. Exploring the association between Alzheimer’s disease, oral health, microbial endocrinology and nutrition. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 9(398).

Harley, J. B., and J. A. James. 2006. Epstein-Barr virus infection induces lupus autoimmunity. Bulletin of the NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases 64(1–2):45–50.

Harley, J. B., X. Chen, M. Pujato, D. Miller, A. Maddox, C. Forney, A. F. Magnusen, A. Lynch, K. Chetal, M. Yukawa, A. Barski, N. Salomonis, K. M. Kaufman, L. C. Kottyan, and M. T. Weirauch. 2018. Transcription factors operate across disease loci, with EBNA2 implicated in autoimmunity. Nature Genetics 50(5):699–707.

Harpaz, D., L. P. Yeo, F. Cecchini, T. H. P. Koon, A. Kushmaro, A. I. Y. Tok, R. S. Marks, and E. Eltzov. 2018. Measuring artificial sweetners toxicity using a bioluminescent bacterial panel. Molecules 23(10):2454.

He, Y., W. Wu, H.-M. Zheng, P. Li, D. McDonald, H.-F. Sheng, M.-X. Chen, Z.-H. Chen, G.-Y. Ji, and P. Mujagond. 2018. Regional variation limits applications of healthy gut microbiome reference ranges and disease models. Nature Medicine 24(10):1532.

Heflin, C. M., and J. Iceland. 2009. Poverty, material hardship and depression. Social Science Quarterly 90(5):1051–1071.

Hepatitis B Foundation. 2019. Guidelines. https://www.hepb.org/prevention-and-diagnosis/vaccination/guidelines (accessed September 20, 2019).

Holman, D. M., V. Benard, K. B. Roland, M. Watson, N. Liddon, and S. Stokley. 2014. Barriers to human papillomavirus vaccination among U.S. adolescents: A systematic review of the literature. JAMA Pediatrics 168(1):76–82.

Hsu, C.-C., C.-H. Lee, M. L. Wahlqvist, H.-L. Huang, H.-Y. Chang, L. Chen, S.-F. Shih, S.-J. Shin, W.-C. Tsai, T. Chen, C.-T. Huang, and J.-S. Cheng. 2012. Poverty increases type 2 diabetes incidence and inequality of care despite universal health coverage. Diabetes Care 35(11):2286.

Huangfu, P., Y. V. Laurence, B. Alisjahbana, C. Ugarte-Gil, A. L. Riza, G. Walzl, R. Ruslami, D. A. J. Moore, M. Ioana, S. McAllister, K. Ronacher, R. C. Koesoemadinata, D. Grint, S. Kerry, J. Coronel, S. T. Malherbe, U. Griffiths, H. M. Dockrell, P. C. Hill, R. van Crevel, F. Pearson, and J. A. Critchley. 2019. Point of care HbA1c level for diabetes mellitus management and its accuracy among tuberculosis patients: A study in four countries. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 23(3):283–292.

Human Microbiome Project, C. Huttenhower, D. Gevers, R. Knight, S. Abubucker, J. H. Badger, A. T. Chinwalla, H. H. Creasy, A. M. Earl, M. G. FitzGerald, R. S. Fulton, M. G. Giglio, K. Hallsworth-Pepin, E. A. Lobos, R. Madupu, V. Magrini, J. C. Martin, M. Mitreva, D. M. Muzny, E. J. Sodergren, J. Versalovic, A. M. Wollam, K. C. Worley, J. R. Wortman, S. K. Young, Q. Zeng, K. M. Aagaard, O. O. Abolude, E. Allen-Vercoe, E. J. Alm, L. Alvarado, G. L. Andersen, S. Anderson, E. Appelbaum, H. M. Arachchi, G. Armitage, C. A. Arze, T. Ayvaz, C. C. Baker, L. Begg, T. Belachew, V. Bhonagiri, M. Bihan, M. J. Blaser, T. Bloom, V. Bonazzi, J. Paul Brooks, G. A. Buck, C. J. Buhay, D. A. Busam, J. L. Campbell, S. R. Canon, B. L. Cantarel, P. S. G. Chain, I. M. A. Chen, L. Chen, S. Chhibba, K. Chu, D. M. Ciulla, J. C. Clemente, S. W. Clifton, S. Conlan, J. Crabtree, M. A. Cutting, N. J. Davidovics, C. C. Davis, T. Z. DeSantis, C. Deal, K. D. Delehaunty, F. E. Dewhirst, E. Deych, Y. Ding, D. J. Dooling, S. P. Dugan, W. Michael Dunne, A. Scott Durkin, R. C. Edgar, R. L. Erlich, C. N. Farmer, R. M. Farrell, K. Faust, M. Feldgarden, V. M. Felix, S. Fisher, A. A. Fodor, L. J. Forney, L. Foster, V. Di Francesco, J. Friedman, D. C. Friedrich, C. C. Fronick, L. L. Fulton, H. Gao, N. Garcia, G. Giannoukos, C. Giblin, M. Y. Giovanni, J. M. Goldberg, J. Goll, A. Gonzalez, A. Griggs, S. Gujja, S. Kinder Haake, B. J. Haas, H. A. Hamilton, E. L. Harris, T. A. Hepburn, B. Herter, D. E. Hoffmann, M. E. Holder, C. Howarth, K. H. Huang, S. M. Huse, J. Izard, J. K. Jansson, H. Jiang, C. Jordan, V. Joshi, J. A. Katancik, W. A. Keitel, S. T. Kelley, C. Kells, N. B. King, D. Knights, H. H. Kong, O. Koren, S. Koren, K. C. Kota, C. L. Kovar, N. C. Kyrpides, P. S. La Rosa, S. L. Lee, K. P. Lemon, N. Lennon, C. M. Lewis, L. Lewis, R. E. Ley, K. Li, K. Liolios, B. Liu, Y. Liu, C.-C. Lo, C. A. Lozupone, R. D. Lunsford, T. Madden, A. A. Mahurkar, P. J. Mannon, E. R. Mardis, V. M. Markowitz, K. Mavromatis, J. M. McCorrison,

D. McDonald, J. McEwen, A. L. McGuire, P. McInnes, T. Mehta, K. A. Mihindukulasuriya, J. R. Miller, P. J. Minx, I. Newsham, C. Nusbaum, M. O’Laughlin, J. Orvis, I. Pagani, K. Palaniappan, S. M. Patel, M. Pearson, J. Peterson, M. Podar, C. Pohl, K. S. Pollard, M. Pop, M. E. Priest, L. M. Proctor, X. Qin, J. Raes, J. Ravel, J. G. Reid, M. Rho, R. Rhodes, K. P. Riehle, M. C. Rivera, B. Rodriguez-Mueller, Y.-H. Rogers, M. C. Ross, C. Russ, R. K. Sanka, P. Sankar, J. Fah Sathirapongsasuti, J. A. Schloss, P. D. Schloss, T. M. Schmidt, M. Scholz, L. Schriml, A. M. Schubert, N. Segata, J. A. Segre, W. D. Shannon, R. R. Sharp, T. J. Sharpton, N. Shenoy, N. U. Sheth, G. A. Simone, I. Singh, C. S. Smillie, J. D. Sobel, D. D. Sommer, P. Spicer, G. G. Sutton, S. M. Sykes, D. G. Tabbaa, M. Thiagarajan, C. M. Tomlinson, M. Torralba, T. J. Treangen, R. M. Truty, T. A. Vishnivetskaya, J. Walker, L. Wang, Z. Wang, D. V. Ward, W. Warren, M. A. Watson, C. Wellington, K. A. Wetterstrand, J. R. White, K. Wilczek-Boney, Y. Wu, K. M. Wylie, T. Wylie, C. Yandava, L. Ye, Y. Ye, S. Yooseph, B. P. Youmans, L. Zhang, Y. Zhou, Y. Zhu, L. Zoloth, J. D. Zucker, B. W. Birren, R. A. Gibbs, S. K. Highlander, B. A. Methé, K. E. Nelson, J. F. Petrosino, G. M. Weinstock, R. K. Wilson, and O. White. 2012. Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature 486:207.

ICAP. 2011. Strengthening chronic disease services in Ethiopia: Lessons learned from HIV/AIDS program implementation conference report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: ICAP at Columbia University.

ICAP. 2019. Who we are. https://icap.columbia.edu/who-we-are (accessed September 19, 2019).

Ilievski, V., P. K. Zuchowska, S. J. Green, P. T. Toth, M. E. Ragozzino, K. Le, H. W. Aljewari, N. M. O’Brien-Simpson, E. C. Reynolds, and K. Watanabe. 2018. Chronic oral application of a periodontal pathogen results in brain inflammation, neurodegeneration and amyloid beta production in wild type mice. PLoS One 13(10):e0204941.

Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. 2010. Global burden of disease profile: South Africa. Seattle, WA: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation.

International Diabetes Federation. 2017. IDF diabetes atlas, 8th ed. Brussels, Belgium: International Diabetes Federation.

IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2004. The infectious etiology of chronic diseases: Defining the relationship, enhancing the research, and mitigating the effects: Workshop summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

IOM. 2014. Microbial ecology in states of health and disease: Workshop summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Iweala, O. I., and C. R. Nagler. 2019. The microbiome and food allergy. Annual Review of Immunology 37:377–403.

Jamison, D. T., L. H. Summers, G. Alleyne, K. J. Arrow, S. Berkley, A. Binagwaho, F. Bustreo, D. Evans, R. G. A. Feachem, J. Frenk, G. Ghosh, S. J. Goldie, Y. Guo, S. Gupta, R. Horton, M. E. Kruk, A. Mahmoud, L. K. Mohohlo, M. Ncube, A. Pablos-Mendez, K. S. Reddy, H. Saxenian, A. Soucat, K. H. Ulltveit-Moe, and G. Yamey. 2013. Global health 2035: A world converging within a generation. Lancet 382(9908):1898–1955.

Jamison, D., H. Gelband, S. Horton, P. Jha, R. Laxminarayan, C. Mock, and R. Nugent. 2018. Disease control priorities: Improving health and reducing poverty, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

Jeon, C. Y., and M. B. Murray. 2008. Diabetes mellitus increases the risk of active tuberculosis: A systematic review of 13 observational studies. PLoS Medicine 5(7):e152.

Jha, A. R., E. R. Davenport, Y. Gautam, D. Bhandari, S. Tandukar, K. M. Ng, G. K. Fragiadakis, S. Holmes, G. P. Gautam, J. Leach, J. B. Sherchand, C. D. Bustamante, and J. L. Sonnenburg. 2018. Gut microbiome transition across a lifestyle gradient in Himalaya. PLoS Biology 16(11):e2005396.

Jimenez-Corona, M. E., L. P. Cruz-Hervert, L. Garcia-Garcia, L. Ferreyra-Reyes, G. Delgado-Sanchez, M. Bobadilla-del-Valle, S. Canizales-Quintero, E. Ferreira-Guerrero, R. Baez-Saldana, N. Tellez-Vazquez, R. Montero-Campos, N. Mongua-Rodriguez, R. A. Martinez-Gamboa, J. Sifuentes-Osornia, and A. Ponce-de-Leon. 2012. Association of diabetes and tuberculosis: Impact on treatment and post-treatment outcomes. Thorax 68:214–220.

Kabami, J., G. Chamie, D. Kwarisiima, E. Biira, P. Ssebutinde, M. Petersen, E. D. Charlebois, M. R. Kamya, D. V. Havlir, T. D. Clark, and the SEARCH Collaboration. 2017. Evaluating the feasibility and uptake of a community-led HIV testing and multi-disease health campaign in rural Uganda. Journal of the International AIDS Society 20(1):21514.

Kamer, A. R., E. Pirraglia, W. Tsui, H. Rusinek, S. Vallabhajosula, L. Mosconi, L. Yi, P. McHugh, R. G. Craig, S. Svetcov, R. Linker, C. Shi, L. Glodzik, S. Williams, P. Corby, D. Saxena, and M. J. de Leon. 2015. Periodontal disease associates with higher brain amyloid load in normal elderly. Neurobiology and Aging 36(2):627–633.

Kang, M. S., and E. Kieff. 2015. Epstein-Barr virus latent genes. Experimental & Molecular Medicine 47(1):e131. doi: 10.1038/emm.2014.84.

Kaspersen, K. A., O. B. Pedersen, M. S. Petersen, H. Hjalgrim, K. Rostgaard, B. K. Moller, C. Juul-Sorensen, S. Kotze, K. M. Dinh, L. T. Erikstrup, E. Sorensen, L. W. Thorner, K. S. Burgdorf, H. Ullum, and C. Erikstrup. 2015. Obesity and risk of infection: Results from the Danish blood donor study. Epidemiology 26(4):580–589.

Kaye, E. K., A. Valencia, N. Baba, A. Spiro, 3rd, T. Dietrich, and R. I. Garcia. 2010. Tooth loss and periodontal disease predict poor cognitive function in older men. Journal of the American Geriatric Society 58(4):713–718.

Keenan, J. D., R. L. Bailey, S. K. West, A. M. Arzika, J. Hart, J. Weaver, K. Kalua, Z. Mrango, K. J. Ray, and C. Cook. 2018. Azithromycin to reduce childhood mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. New England Journal of Medicine 378(17):1583–1592.

Keenan, J. D., A. M. Arzika, R. Maliki, N. Boubacar, S. Elh Adamou, M. Moussa Ali, C. Cook, E. Lebas, Y. Lin, K. J. Ray, K. S. O’Brien, T. Doan, C. E. Oldenburg, E. K. Callahan, P. M. Emerson, T. C. Porco, and T. M. Lietman. 2019. Longer-term assessment of azithromycin for reducing childhood mortality in Africa. New England Journal of Medicine 380(23):2207–2214.

Kelly, C. R., A. Khoruts, C. Staley, M. J. Sadowsky, M. Abd, M. Alani, B. Bakow, P. Curran, J. McKenney, and A. Tisch. 2016. Effect of fecal microbiota transplantation on recurrence in multiply recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: A randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 165(9):609.

Kim, J. H., W. S. Kim, J. Y. Hong, K. J. Ryu, S. J. Kim, and C. Park. 2017. Epstein-Barr virus EBNA directs doxorubicin resistance of B cell lymphoma through CCL3 and CCL4-mediated activation of NF-κB and BTK. Oncotarget 8(3):5361–5370.

Kimaiyo, S. 2019. Outcomes of the AMPATH model in Kenya. PowerPoint presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Kirby, T. O., and J. Ochoa-Repáraz. 2018. The gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis: A potential therapeutic avenue. Medical Sciences (Basel, Switzerland) 6(3):69.

Knight, R. 2018. Integrated approaches to analyze big data in the perinatal/neonatal space. Breastfeeding Medicine 13(S1):S5–S6.

Knight, R. 2019. A microbial dimension to human development and the potential for new approaches to human well-being. PowerPoint presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Knight, R., C. Callewaert, C. Marotz, E. R. Hyde, J. W. Debelius, D. McDonald, and M. L. Sogin. 2017. The microbiome and human biology. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 18(1):65–86.

Ko, A. I., M. Galvao Reis, C. M. Ribeiro Dourado, W. D. Johnson, Jr., and L. W. Riley. 1999. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador leptospirosis study group. Lancet 354(9181):820–825.

Koenig, J. E., A. Spor, N. Scalfone, A. D. Fricker, J. Stombaugh, R. Knight, L. T. Angenent, and R. E. Ley. 2011. Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108(Suppl 1):4578–4585.

Kolata, G. 2016. Could Alzheimer’s stem from infections? It makes sense, experts say. The New York Times. May 25.

Kolev, M. V., M. M. Ruseva, C. L. Harris, B. P. Morgan, and R. M. Donev. 2009. Implication of complement system and its regulators in Alzheimer’s disease. Current Neuropharmacology 7(1):1–8.

Kornfeld, H., K. West, K. Kane, S. Kumpatla, R. R. Zacharias, C. Martinez-Balzano, W. Li, and V. Viswanathan. 2016. High prevalence and heterogeneity of diabetes in patients with TB in south India: A report from the effects of diabetes on tuberculosis severity (EDOTS) study. Chest 149(6):1501–1508.

Kumar, D. K., S. H. Choi, K. J. Washicosky, W. A. Eimer, S. Tucker, J. Ghofrani, A. Lefkowitz, G. McColl, L. E. Goldstein, R. E. Tanzi, and R. D. Moir. 2016. Amyloid-beta peptide protects against microbial infection in mouse and worm models of Alzheimer’s disease. Science Translational Medicine 8(340):340ra72.

Kwan, G. F., A. K. Bukhman, A. C. Miller, G. Ngoga, J. Mucumbitsi, C. Bavuma, S. Dusabeyezu, M. L. Rich, F. Mutabazi, C. Mutumbira, J. P. Ngiruwera, C. Amoroso, E. Ball, H. S. Fraser, L. R. Hirschhorn, P. Farmer, E. Rusingiza, and G. Bukhman. 2013. A simplified echocardiographic strategy for heart failure diagnosis and management within an integrated noncommunicable disease clinic at district hospital level for sub-Saharan Africa. JACC Heart Failure 1(3):230–236.

Langdon, A. N. Crook, and G. Dantas. 2016. The effects of antibiotics on the microbiome throughout development and alternative approaches for therapeutic modulation. Genome Medicine 8(1):39.

Langefeld, C. D., H. C. Ainsworth, D. S. Cunninghame Graham, J. A. Kelly, M. E. Comeau, M. C. Marion, T. D. Howard, P. S. Ramos, J. A. Croker, D. L. Morris, J. K. Sandling, J. C. Almlof, E. M. Acevedo-Vasquez, G. S. Alarcon, A. M. Babini, V. Baca, A. A. Bengtsson, G. A. Berbotto, M. Bijl, E. E. Brown, H. I. Brunner, M. H. Cardiel, L. Catoggio, R. Cervera, J. M. Cucho-Venegas, S. R. Dahlqvist, S. D’Alfonso, B. M. Da Silva, I. de la Rua Figueroa, A. Doria, J. C. Edberg, E. Endreffy, J. A. Esquivel-Valerio, P. R. Fortin, B. I. Freedman, J. Frostegard, M. A. Garcia, I. G. de la Torre, G. S. Gilkeson, D. D. Gladman, I. Gunnarsson, J. M. Guthridge, J. L. Huggins, J. A. James, C. G. M. Kallenberg, D. L. Kamen, D. R. Karp, K. M. Kaufman, L. C. Kottyan, L. Kovacs, H. Laustrup, B. R. Lauwerys, Q. Z. Li, M. A. Maradiaga-Cecena, J. Martin, J. M. McCune, D. R. McWilliams, J. T. Merrill, P. Miranda, J. F. Moctezuma, S. K. Nath, T. B. Niewold, L. Orozco, N. Ortego-Centeno, M. Petri, C. A. Pineau, B. A. Pons-Estel, J. Pope, P. Raj, R. Ramsey-Goldman, J. D. Reveille, L. P. Russell, J. M. Sabio, C. A. Aguilar-Salinas, H. R. Scherbarth, R. Scorza, M. F. Seldin, C. Sjowall, E. Svenungsson, S. D. Thompson, S. M. A. Toloza, L. Truedsson, T. Tusie-Luna, C. Vasconcelos, L. M. Vila, D. J. Wallace, M. H. Weisman, J. E. Wither, T. Bhangale, J. R. Oksenberg, J. D. Rioux, P. K. Gregersen, A. C. Syvanen, L. Ronnblom, L. A. Criswell, C. O. Jacob, K. L. Sivils, B. P. Tsao, L. E. Schanberg, T. W. Behrens, E. D. Silverman, M. E. Alarcon-Riquelme, R. P. Kimberly, J. B. Harley, E. K. Wakeland, R. R. Graham, P. M. Gaffney, and T. J. Vyse. 2017. Transancestral mapping and genetic load in systemic lupus erythematosus. Nature Communication 8:16021.

Lee, M.-C., C.-Y. Chiang, C.-H. Lee, C.-M. Ho, C.-H. Chang, J.-Y. Wang, and S.-M. Chen. 2018. Metformin use is associated with a low risk of tuberculosis among newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus patients with normal renal function: A nationwide cohort study with validated diagnostic criteria. PLoS One 13(10):e0205807–e0205807.

Lee, M. R., Y. P. Huang, Y. T. Kuo, C. H. Luo, Y. J. Shih, C. C. Shu, J. Y. Wang, J. C. Ko, C. J. Yu, and H. H. Lin. 2017. Diabetes mellitus and latent tuberculosis infection: A systemic review and metaanalysis. Clinical Infectious Disease 64(6):719–727.

Lee, P. H., H. Fu, T. C. Lai, C. Y. Chiang, C. C. Chan, and H. H. Lin. 2016. Glycemic control and the risk of tuberculosis: A cohort study. PLoS Medicine 13(8):e1002072.

Leegaard, A., A. Riis, J. B. Kornum, J. B. Prahl, V. O. Thomsen, H. T. Sorensen, C. R. Horsburgh, and R. W. Thomsen. 2011. Diabetes, glycemic control, and risk of tuberculosis: A population-based case-control study. Diabetes Care 34(12):2530–2535.

Legason, I. D., R. M. Pfeiffer, K.-I. Udquim, A. W. Bergen, M. H. Gouveia, S. Kirimunda, I. Otim, E. Karlins, P. Kerchan, H. Nabalende, A. Bayanjargal, B. Emmanuel, P. Kagwa, A. O. Talisuna, K. Bhatia, M. Yeager, R. J. Biggar, L. W. Ayers, S. J. Reynolds, J. J. Goedert, M. D. Ogwang, J. F. Fraumeni, Jr., L. Prokunina-Olsson, and S. M. Mbulaiteye. 2017. Evaluating the causal link between malaria infection and endemic Burkitt lymphoma in northern Uganda: A Mendelian randomization study. EBioMedicine 25:58–65.

Leon, D. A. 2008. Cities, urbanization and health. International Journal of Epidemiology 37(1):4–8.

Leung, C. C., T. H. Lam, W. M. Chan, W. W. Yew, K. S. Ho, G. M. Leung, W. S. Law, C. M. Tam, C. K. Chan, and K. C. Chang. 2008. Diabetic control and risk of tuberculosis: A cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology 167(12):1486–1494.

Lin, Y., A. D. Harries, A. M. V. Kumar, J. A. Critchley, R. van Crevel, P. Owiti, R. A. Dlodlo, and A. Dejgaard. 2019. Management of diabetes mellitus-tuberculosis: A guide to the essential practice. Paris, France: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease.

Loh, W., and M. L. K. Tang. 2018. The epidemiology of food allergy in the global context. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15(9):2043.

Lonnerdal, B. 2017. Excess iron intake as a factor in growth, infections, and development of infants and young children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 106(Suppl 6):1681s–1687s.

Luntz, G. R. 1954. Tuberculous diabetics: the Birmingham regional service. Lancet 266:973–974.

Luntz, G. R. 1957. Management of the tuberculosis diabetic: follow-up of 84 cases for one year. British Medical Journal 1:1082–1086.

Lynch, C. 2019. Alzheimer’s disease and P. gingivalis. PowerPoint presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Maier, L., M. Pruteanu, M. Kuhn, G. Zeller, A. Telzerow, E. E. Anderson, A. R. Brochado, K. C. Fernandez, H. Dose, H. Mori, K. R. Patil, P. Bork, and A. Typass. 2018. Extensive impact of non-antibiotic drugs on human gut bacteria. Nature 555(698):623–628.

Mamlin, B. W., and P. G. Biondich. 2005. AMPATH Medical Record System (AMRS): Collaborating toward an EMR for developing countries. AMIA Symposium 490–494.

Mamlin, J., S. Kimaiyo, W. Nyandiko, and W. Tierney. 2004. Perspectives and practice in antiretroviral treatment: Academic institutions linking access to treatment and prevention: Case study. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

Marais, B. J., K. Lonnroth, S. D. Lawn, G. B. Migliori, P. Mwaba, P. Glaziou, M. Bates, R. Colagiuri, L. Zijenah, S. Swaminathan, Z. A. Memish, M. Pletschette, M. Hoelscher, I. Abubakar, R. Hasan, A. Zafar, G. Pantaleo, G. Craig, and A. Zumla. 2013. Tuberculosis comorbidity with communicable and non-communicable diseases: Integrating health services and control efforts. Lancet Infectious Diseases 13(4):285–287.

Marsalek, J. 2014. Urban water cycle processes and interactions: Urban water series-UNESCO-IHP: Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Marshall, B. J., J. A. Amstrong, D. B. McGechie, and R. J. Glancy. 1985. Attempt to fulfil Koch’s postulates for pyloric Campylobacter. Medical Journal of Australia 142:436–439.

Massini, G., D. Siemer, and S. Hohaus. 2009. EBV in Hodgkin lymphoma. Mediterranean Journal of Hematology and Infectious Diseases 1(2):e2009013.

McClung, N. M., J. W. Gargano, N. M. Bennett, L. M. Niccolai, N. Abdullah, M. R. Griffin, I. U. Park, A. A. Cleveland, T. D. Querec, E. R. Unger, and L. E. Markowitz. 2019. Trends in human papillomavirus vaccine types 16 and 18 in cervical precancers, 2008-2014. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 28(3):602–609.

Mele, A., F. Tancredi, L. Romanò, A. Giuseppone, M. Colucci, A. Sangiuolo, R. Lecce, B. Adamo, M. E. Tosti, G. Taliani, and A. R. Zanetti. 2001. Effectiveness of Hepatitis B vaccination in babies born to Hepatitis B surface antigen-positive mothers in Italy. Journal of Infectious Diseases 184(7):905–908.

Mendenhall, E. 2017. Syndemics: A new path for global health research. Lancet 389(10072):889–891.

Mendenhall, E. 2019a. Syndemics of infectious & noncommunicable disease. Presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Mendenhall, E. 2019b. Rethinking diabetes: Entanglements with trauma, poverty, and HIV. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Mendenhall, E., and S. A. Norris. 2015. When HIV is ordinary and diabetes new: Remaking suffering in a South African township. Global Public Health 10(4):449–462.

Mendenhall, E., R. Shivashankar, N. Tandon, M. K. Ali, K. M. V. Narayan, and D. Prabhakaran. 2012. Stress and diabetes in socioeconomic context: A qualitative study of urban Indians. Social Science & Medicine 75(12):2522–2529.

Mendenhall, E., B. A. Kohrt, S. A. Norris, D. Ndetei, and D. Prabhakaran. 2017. Noncommunicable disease syndemics: Poverty, depression, and diabetes among low-income populations. Lancet 389(10072):951–963.

Mohand, A. A., Y. Kayiteshonga, C. N. Misago, J. D. Dusabeyezu, and J. D. Iyamuremye. 2017. Decentralization and integration of mental health care into primary health care: A case study of Rwwanda. In Strengthening health systems: Evidence-informed approaches and lessons learned from Rwanda, edited by A. van der Kwaak, and J. Mathijssen. Rwanda: Ministry of Health. Pp. 55–69.

Morton, R. 1694. Phthisiologia: Or a treatise of consumptions. London, UK: Smith and Watford.

Moss, D. J., S. R. Burrows, and R. Khanna. 2007. EBV: Immunobiology and host response. In Human herpesviruses: Biology, therapy, and immunoprophylaxis, edited by A. Arvin, G. Campadelli-Fiume, E. Mocarski, P. S. Moore, B. Roizman, R. Whitley, and K. Yamanishi. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Nagler, C. 2019. The role of the microbiome in food allergies. PowerPoint presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Navale, A. M., and A. N. Paranjape. 2016. Glucose transporters: physiological and pathological roles. Biophysical Reviews 8(1):5–9.

Neu, J., and J. Rushing. 2011. Cesarean versus vaginal delivery: Long-term infant outcomes and the hygiene hypothesis. Clinics in Perinatology 38(2):321–331.

Newcombe, E. A., J. Camats-Perna, M. L. Silva, N. Valmas, T. J. Huat, and R. Medeiros. 2018. Inflammation: The link between comorbidities, genetics, and Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neuroinflammation 15(1):276.

NIH (National Institutes of Health). 2019. NIH Human Microbiome Project. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health.

Noubiap, J. J., J. R. Nansseu, U. F. Nyaga, J. R. Nkeck, F. T. Endomba, A. D. Kaze, V. N. Agbor, and J. J. Bigna. 2019. Global prevalence of diabetes in active tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of data from 2.3 million patients with tuberculosis. Lancet Global Health 7(4):e448–e460.

Nugent, R. 2016. A chronology of global assistance funding for NCD. Global Heart 11(4):371–374.

Nugent, R., R. V. Barnabas, I. Golovaty, B. Osetinsky, D. A. Roberts, C. Bisson, L. Courtney, P. Patel, G. Yonga, and D. Watkins. 2018a. Costs and cost-effectiveness of HIV/noncommunicable disease integration in Africa: From theory to practice. AIDS 32:S83–S92.

Nugent, R., M. Y. Bertram, S. Jan, L. W. Niessen, F. Sassi, D. T. Jamison, E. G. Pier, and R. Beaglehole. 2018b. Investing in non-communicable disease prevention and management to advance the sustainable development goals. Lancet 391(10134):2029–2035.

O’Brien, K. S., P. Emerson, P. J. Hooper, A. L. Reingold, E. G. Dennis, J. D. Keenan, T. M. Lietman, and C. E. Oldenburg. 2019. Antimicrobial resistance following mass azithromycin distribution for trachoma: A systematic review. Lancet Infectious Diseases 19(1):e14–e25.

O’Connor S. M., C. E. Taylor, and J. M. Hughes. 2006. Emerging infectious determinants of chronic diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12(7):1051–1057.

Okano, M., and T. G. Gross. 2012. Acute or chronic life-threatening diseases associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection. American Journal of Medical Science 343(6):483–489.

Olayinka, A. O., O. Anthonia, and K. Yetunde. 2013. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus in persons with tuberculosis in a tertiary health centre in Lagos, Nigeria. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 17(3):486–489.

Oldenburg, C. E., A. Sié, B. Coulibaly, L. Ouermi, C. Dah, C. Tapsoba, T. Bärnighausen, K. J. Ray, L. Zhong, S. Cummings, E. Lebas, T. M. Lietman, J. D. Keenan, and T. Doan. 2018. Effect of commonly used pediatric antibiotics on gut microbial diversity in preschool children in Burkina Faso: A randomized clinical trial. Open Forum Infectious Diseases 5(11):ofy289.

Oldenburg, C. E., A. M. Arzika, A. Amza, T. Gebre, K. Kalua, Z. Mrango, S. Y. Cotter, S. K. West, R. L. Bailey, P. M. Emerson, K. S. O’Brien, T. C. Porco, J. D. Keenan, and T. M. Lietman. 2019. Mass azithromycin distribution to prevent childhood mortality: A pooled analysis of cluster-randomized trials. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100(3):691–695.

Omotoso, K. O., and S. F. Koch. 2018. Assessing changes in social determinants of health inequalities in South Africa: A decomposition analysis. International Journal for Equity in Health 17(1):181.

Oni, T. 2019. Infectious diseases and noncommunicable diseases—Convergent action for colliding epidemics. PowerPoint presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Oni, T., and N. Unwin. 2015. Why the communicable/non-communicable disease dichotomy is problematic for public health control strategies: Implications of multimorbidity for health systems in an era of health transition. International Health 7(6):390–399.

Oni, T., N. McGrath, R. BeLue, P. Roderick, S. Colagiuri, C. R. May, and N. S. Levitt. 2014. Chronic diseases and multi-morbidity—a conceptual modification to the WHO ICCC model for countries in health transition. BMC Public Health 14:575.

Oni, T., E. Youngblood, A. Boulle, N. McGrath, R. J. Wilkinson, and N. S. Levitt. 2015. Patterns of HIV, TB, and non-communicable disease multi-morbidity in peri-urban South Africa—a cross sectional study. BMC Infectious Diseases 15:20.

Oni, T., N. Berkowitz, M. Kubjane, R. Goliath, N. S. Levitt, and R. J. Wilkinson. 2017. Trilateral overlap of tuberculosis, diabetes and HIV-1 in a high-burden African setting: Implications for TB control. European Respiratory Journal 50(1):1700004.

Oni, T., E. Mogo, A. Ahmed, and J. I. Davies. 2019. Braking down the silos of universal health coverage: towards systems for the primary prevention of non-communicable diseaes in Africa. BMJ Global Health 4(4):e001717.

Palma, A. M., M. Rabkin, S. Simelane, A. B. Gachuhi, M. L. McNairy, H. Nuwagaba-Biribonwoha, P. Bongomin, V. N. Okello, R. A. Bitchong, and W. M. El-Sadr. 2018. A time-motion study of cardiovascular disease risk factor screening integrated into HIV clinic visits in Swaziland. Journal of the International AIDS Society 21(3):e25099.

Pascal, V., M. Pozuelo, N. Borruel, F. Casellas, D. Campos, A. Santiago, X. Martinez, E. Varela, G. Sarrabayrouse, K. Machiels, S. Vermeire, H. Sokol, F. Guarner, and C. Manichanh. 2017. A microbial signature for Crohn’s disease. Gut 66(5):813–822.

Patterson, B., C. D. Morrow, D. Kohls, C. Deignan, S. Ginsburg, and R. Wood. 2017. Mapping sites of high TB transmission risk: Integrating the shared air and social behaviour of TB cases and adolescents in a South African township. Science of the Total Environment 583:97–103.

Pealing, L., K. Wing, R. Mathur, D. Prieto-Merino, L. Smeeth, and D. A. Moore. 2015. Risk of tuberculosis in patients with diabetes: Population based cohort study using the UK clinical practice research datalink. BMC Medicine 13:135.

PIH (Partners In Health). 2011. Integration of chronic care services in Rwanda. In The Partners In Health guide to chronic care integration for endemic non-communicable diseases: Rwanda edition, edited by G. Bukhman and A. Kidder. Cambridge, MA. Pp. 3–4.

Porco, T. C., T. Gebre, B. Ayele, J. House, J. Keenan, Z. Zhou, K. C. Hong, N. Stoller, K. J. Ray, and P. Emerson. 2009. Effect of mass distribution of azithromycin for trachoma control on overall mortality in Ethiopian children: A randomized trial. JAMA 302(9):962–968.

Proctor, L. M., H. H. Creasy, J. M. Fettweis, J. Lloyd-Price, A. Mahurkar, W. Zhou, G. A. Buck, M. P. Snyder, J. F. Strauss, G. M. Weinstock, O. White, C. Huttenhower, and the Integrative Human Microbiome Project Research Network Consortium. 2019. The Integrative Human Microbiome Project. Nature 569(7758):641–648.

Qin, J., R. Li, J. Raes, M. Arumugam, K. S. Burgdorf, C. Manichanh, T. Nielsen, N. Pons, F. Levenez, T. Yamada, D. R. Mende, J. Li, J. Xu, S. Li, D. Li, J. Cao, B. Wang, H. Liang, H. Zheng, Y. Xie, J. Tap, P. Lepage, M. Bertalan, J. M. Batto, T. Hansen, D. Le Paslier, A. Linneberg, H. B. Nielsen, E. Pelletier, P. Renault, T. Sicheritz-Ponten, K. Turner, H. Zhu, C. Yu, S. Li, M. Jian, Y. Zhou, Y. Li, X. Zhang, S. Li, N. Qin, H. Yang, J. Wang, S. Brunak, J. Doré, F. Guarner, K. Kristiansen, O. Pedersen, J. Parkhill, J. Weissenbach, P. Bork, S. D. Ehrlich, and J. Wang. 2010. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 464(7285):59–65.

Rabkin, M. 2019. HIV & NCD integration platforms: Leveraging HIV scale-up to provide NCD services in austere health systems. PowerPoint presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Rabkin, M., and W. M. El-Sadr. 2011. Why reinvent the wheel? Leveraging the lessons of HIV scale-up to confront non-communicable diseases. Global Public Health 6(3):247–256.

Rabkin, M., and S. Nishtar. 2011. Scaling up chronic care systems: Leveraging HIV programs to support noncommunicable disease services. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 57(Suppl 2):S87–S90.

Rabkin, M., M. E. Kruk, and W. M. El-Sadr. 2012a. HIV, aging and continuity care: Strengthening health systems to support services for noncommunicable diseases in low-income countries. AIDS 26(Suppl 1):S77–S83.

Rabkin, M., Z. Melaku, K. Bruce, A. Reja, A. Koler, Y. Tadesse, H. N. Kamiru, L. T. Sibanyoni, and W. El-Sadr. 2012b. Strengthening health systems for chronic care: Leveraging HIV programs to support diabetes services in Ethiopia and Swaziland. Journal of Tropical Medicine 2012:137460.

Rabkin, M., E. Goosby, and W. El-Sadr. 2014. Echoing the lessons of HIV: How to serve the millions with cardiovascular disease. Scientific American. doi: https://doi.org/10.7916/D8F76C5J.

Rabkin, M., A. Mutiti, C. Chung, Y. Zhang, Y. Wei, and W. M. El-Sadr. 2015. Missed opportunities to address cardiovascular disease risk factors amongst adults attending an urban HIV clinic in South Africa. PLoS One 10(10):e0140298.

Rabkin, M., F. M. Fouad, and W. M. El-Sadr. 2018a. Addressing chronic diseases in protracted emergencies: Lessons from HIV for a new health imperative. Global Public Health 13(2):227–233.

Rabkin, M., A. Palma, M. L. McNairy, A. B. Gachuhi, S. Simelane, H. Nuwagaba-Biribonwoha, P. Bongomin, V. J. Okello, R. A. Bitchong, and W. M. El-Sadr. 2018b. Integrating cardiovascular disease risk factor screening into HIV services in Swaziland: Lessons from an implementation science study. AIDS 32(Suppl 1):S43–S46.

Ramos, P. S., S. R. Shaftman, R. C. Ward, and C. D. Langefeld. 2014. Genes associated with SLE are targets of recent positive selection. Autoimmune Diseases 2014:203435.

Ramos-Cejudo, J., T. Wisniewski, C. Marmar, H. Zetterberg, K. Blennow, M. J. de Leon, and S. Fossati. 2018. Traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer’s disease: The cerebrovascular link. EBioMedicine 28:21–30.

Reddy, K. S., D. Prabhakaran, P. Jeemon, K. R. Thankappan, P. Joshi, V. Chaturvedi, L. Ramakrishnan, and F. Ahmed. 2007. Educational status and cardiovascular risk profile in Indians. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104(41):16263–16268.

Rees, F., M. Doherty, M. J. Grainge, P. Lanyon, and W. Zhang. 2017. The worldwide incidence and prevalence of systemic lupus erythematosus: A systematic review of epidemiological studies. Rheumatology 56(11):1945–1961.

Restrepo, B. I., A. J. Camerlin, M. H. Rahbar, W. Wang, M. A. Restrepo, I. Zarate, F. MoraGuzman, J. G. Crespo-Solis, J. Briggs, J. B. McCormick, and S. P. Fisher-Hoch. 2011. Cross-sectional assessment reveals high diabetes prevalence among newly-diagnosed tuberculosis cases. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 89(5):352–359.

Ridaura, V. K., J. J. Faith, F. E. Rey, J. Cheng, A. E. Duncan, A. L. Kau, N. W. Griffin, V. Lombard, B. Henrissat, J. R. Bain, M. J. Muehlbauer, O. Ilkayeva, C. F. Semenkovich, K. Funai, D. K. Hayashi, B. J. Lyle, M. C. Martini, L. K. Ursell, J. C. Clemente, W. V. Treuren, W. A. Walters, R. Knight, C. B. Newgard, A. C. Heath, and J. I. Gordon. 2013. Cultured gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate adiposity and metabolic phenotypes in mice. Science 341(6150):1241214.

Robinson, M. A. 1998. Linkage disequilibrium. In Encyclopedia of Immunology, 2nd ed. Edited by P. J. Delves. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press. Pp. 1586–1588.

Rotheram-Borus, M. J., M. Tomlinson, and E. Davis. 2015. “Boring” family routines reduce non-communicable diseases: A commentary and call for action. Archives of Public Health 73(1):27.

Rothschild, D., O. Weissbrod, E. Barkan, A. Kurilshikov, T. Korem, D. Zeevi, P. I. Costea, A. Godneva, I. N. Kalka, and N. Bar. 2018. Environment dominates over host genetics in shaping human gut microbiota. Nature 555(7695):210.

Rusingiza, E. K., Z. El-Khatib, B. Hedt-Gauthier, G. Ngoga, S. Dusabeyezu, N. Tapela, C. Mutumbira, F. Mutabazi, E. Harelimana, J. Mucumbitsi, G. F. Kwan, and G. Bukhman. 2018. Outcomes for patients with rheumatic heart disease after cardiac surgery followed at rural district hospitals in Rwanda. Heart 104(20):1707–1713.

Saha, A., and E. S. Robertson. 2019. Mechanisms of b-cell oncogenesis induced by Epstein-Barr virus. Journal of Virology 93(13):e00238-19.

Schubert, A. M., M. A. Rogers, C. Ring, J. Mogle, J. P. Petrosiono, V. B. Young, D. M. Aronoff, and P. D. Schloss. 2014. Microbiome data distinguish patients with Clostridium difficile infection and non-C. difficile-associated diarrhea from healthy controls. mBio 5(3):e01021-14.

Sekabaraga, C., A. Soucat, F. Diop, and G. Martin. 2011. Innovative financing for health in Rwanda: A report of successful reforms. In Yes Africa can: Success stories from a dynamic continent, edited by P. Chuhan-Pole and M. Angwafo. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Pp. 403–416.

Sender, R., S. Fuchs, and R. Milo. 2016. Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLoS Biology 14(8):e1002533.

Sharon, G., N. J. Cruz, D.-W. Kang, M. J. Gandal, B. Wang, Y.-M. Kim, E. M. Zink, C. P. Casey, B. C. Taylor, C. J. Lane, L. M. Bramer, N. G. Isern, D. W. Hoyt, C. Noecker, M. J. Sweredoski, A. Moradian, E. Borenstein, J. K. Jansson, R. Knight, T. O. Metz, C. Lois, D. H. Geschwind, R. Krajmalnik-Brown, and S. K. Mazmanian. 2019. Human gut microbiota from autism spectrum disorder promote behavioral symptoms in mice. Cell 177(6):1600–1618.

Sheflin, A. M., C. L. Melby, F. Carbonero, and T. L. Weir. 2017. Linking dietary patterns with gut microbial composition and function. Gut Microbes 8(2):113–129.

Shigayeva, A., R. Atun, M. McKee, and R. Coker. 2010. Health systems, communicable diseases and integration. Health Policy and Planning 25(Suppl 1):i4–i20.

Singer, M. 1994. AIDS and the health crisis of the US urban poor; the perspective of critical medical anthropology. Social Science & Medicine 39(7):931–948.

Singer, M. 1996. Farewell to adaptationism: Unnatural selection and the politics of biology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 10(4):496–515.

Singer, M. 2009. Pathogens gone wild? Medical anthropology and the “swine flu” pandemic. Medical Anthropology 28(3):199–206.

Singer, M., N. Bulled, B. Ostrach, and E. Mendenhall. 2017. Syndemics and the biosocial conception of health. Lancet 389(10072):941–950.

Smits, S. A., A. Marcobal, S. Higginbottom, J. L. Sonnenburg, and P. C. Kashyap. 2016. Individualized responses of gut microbiota to dietary intervention modeled in humanized mice. mSystems 1(5):e00098-16.

Smits, S. A., J. Leach, E. D. Sonnenburg, C. G. Gonzalez, J. S. Lichtman, G. Reid, R. Knight, A. Manjurano, J. Changalucha, and J. E. Elias. 2017. Seasonal cycling in the gut microbiome of the Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania. Science 357(6353):802–806.

Song, C., J. Lv, Y. Liu, J. G. Chen, Z. Ge, J. Zhu, J. Dai, L.B. Du, C. Yu, Y. Guo, Z. Bian, L. Yang, Y. Chen, Z. Chen, J. Liu, J. Jiang, L. Zhu, X. Zhai, Y. Jiang, H. Ma, G. Jin, H. Shen, L. Li, and Z. Hu. 2019. Associations between Hepatitis B virus infection and risk of all cancer types. JAMA Network Open 2(6):e195718.

Soscia, S. J., J. E. Kirby, K. J. Washicosky, S. M. Tucker, M. Ingelsson, B. Hyman, M. A. Burton, L. E. Goldstein, S. Duong, R. E. Tanzi, and R. D. Moir. 2010. The Alzheimer’s disease-associated amyloid beta-protein is an antimicrobial peptide. PLoS One 5(3):e9505.

Spanogiannopoulos, P., and P. J. Turnbaugh. 2018. Broad collateral damage of drugs against the gut microbiome. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and Hepatology 15:457–458.

Sparks Stein, P., M. J. Steffen, C. Smith, G. Jicha, J. L. Ebersole, E. Abner, and D. Dawson, 3rd. 2012. Serum antibodies to periodontal pathogens are a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers and Dementia 8(3):196–203.

Stall, R., T. C. Mills, J. Williamson, T. Hart, G. Greenwood, J. Paul, L. Pollack, D. Binson, D. Osmond, and J. A. Catania. 2003. Association of co-occurring psychosocial health problems and increased vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among urban men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health 93(6):939–942.

Steed, A. L., G. P. Christophi, G. E. Kaiko, L. Sun, V. M. Goodwin, U. Jain, E. Esaulova, M. N. Artyomov, D. J. Morales, M. J. Holtzman, A. C. M. Boon, D. J. Lenschow, and T. S. Stappenbeck. 2017. The microbial metabolite desaminotyrosine protects from influenza through type i interferon. Science 357(6350):498–502.

Steere, A. C., J. Coburn, and L. Glickstein. 2004. The emergence of Lyme disease. Journal of Clinical Investigation 113(8):1093–1101.

Stein, P. S., M. Desrosiers, S. J. Donegan, J. F. Yepes, and R. J. Kryscio. 2007. Tooth loss, dementia and neuropathology in the nun study. Journal of the American Dental Association 138(10):1314–1322; quiz 1381–1382.

Stevenson, C. R., J. A. Critchley, N. G. Forouhi, G. Roglic, B. G. Williams, C. Dye, and N. C. Unwin. 2007. Diabetes and the risk of tuberculosis: A neglected threat to public health? Chronic Illness 3(3):228–245.

Suwanpimolkul, G., J. A. Grinsdale, L. G. Jarlsberg, J. Higashi, D. H. Osmond, P. C. Hopewell, and M. Kato-Maeda. 2014. Association between diabetes mellitus and tuberculosis in United States-born and foreign-born populations in San Francisco. PLoS One 9(12):e114442.

Swinburn, B. A., V. I. Kraak, S. Allender, V. J. Atkins, P. I. Baker, J. R. Bogard, H. Brinsden, A. Calvillo, O. De Schutter, R. Devarajan, M. Ezzati, S. Friel, S. Goenka, R. A. Hammond, G. Hastings, C. Hawkes, M. Herrero, P. S. Hovmand, M. Howden, L. M. Jaacks, A. B. Kapetanaki, M. Kasman, H. V. Kuhnlein, S. K. Kumanyika, B. Larijani, T. Lobstein, M. W. Long, V. K. R. Matsudo, S. D. H. Mills, G. Morgan, A. Morshed, P. M. Nece, A. Pan, D. W. Patterson, G. Sacks, M. Shekar, G. L. Simmons, W. Smit, A. Tootee, S. Vandevijvere, W. E. Waterlander, L. Wolfenden, and W. H. Dietz. 2019. The global syndemic of obesity, undernutrition, and climate change: The Lancet Commission Report. Lancet 393(10173):791–846.

Szalkowski, A. M., and C. D. Schmid. 2011. Rapid innovation in ChIP-seq peak-calling algorithms is outdistancing benchmarking efforts. Briefings in Bioinformatics 12(6):626–633.

Tapela, N., H. Habineza, S. Anoke, E. Harerimana, F. Mutabazi, B. L. Hedt-Gauthier, S. Dusabeyezu, P. X. F. Uwiragiye, C. Mutumbira, G. Ngoga, D. Ndagijimana, E. Rusingiza, G. Bukhman, and C. Bavuma. 2006. Diabetes in rural Rwanda: High retention and positive outcomes after 24 months of follow-up in the setting of chronic care integration. International Journal of Diabetes and Clinical Research 3(2).

Thaiss, C. A., M. Levy, I. Grosheva, D. Zheng, E. Soffer, E. Blacher, S. Braverman, A. C. Tengeler, O. Barak, M. Elazar, R. Ben-Zeev, D. Lehavi-Regev, M. N. Katz, M. Pevsner-Fischer, A. Gertler, Z. Halpern, A. Harmelin, S. Aamar, P. Serradas, A. Grosfeld, H. Shapiro, B. Geiger, and E. Elinav. 2018. Hyperglycemia drives intestinal barrier dysfunction and risk for enteric infection. Science 359(6382):1376–1383.

Thompson, L. R., J. G. Sanders, D. McDonald, A. Amir, J. Ladau, K. J. Locey, R. J. Prill, A. Tripathi, S. M. Gibbons, G. Ackermann, J. A. Navas-Molina, S. Janssen, E. Kopylova, Y. Vazquez-Baeza, A. Gonzalez, J. T. Morton, S. Mirarab, Z. Zech Xu, L. Jiang, M. F. Haroon, J. Kanbar, Q. Zhu, S. Jin Song, T. Kosciolek, N. A. Bokulich, J. Lefler,

C. J. Brislawn, G. Humphrey, S. M. Owens, J. Hampton-Marcell, D. Berg-Lyons, V. McKenzie, N. Fierer, J. A. Fuhrman, A. Clauset, R. L. Stevens, A. Shade, K. S. Pollard, K. D. Goodwin, J. K. Jansson, J. A. Gilbert, and R. Knight. 2017. A communal catalogue reveals Earth’s multiscale microbial diversity. Nature 551(7681):457–463.

Tracy, S. I., K. Kakalacheva, J. D. Lünemann, K. Luzuriaga, J. Middeldorp, and D. A. ThorleyLawson. 2012. Persistence of Epstein-Barr virus in self-reactive memory B cells. Journal of Virology 86(22):12330–12340.

Tropini, C. K., A. Earle, K. C. Huang, and J. L. Sonnenburg. 2017. The gut microbiome: Connecting spatial organization to function. Cell Host & Microbe 21(4):433–442.

Tsai, A. C. 2018. Syndemics: A theory in search of data or data in search of a theory? Social Science and Medicine 206:117–122.

Tsai, A. C., and B. F. Burns. 2015. Syndemics of psychosocial problems and HIV risk: A systematic review of empirical tests of the disease interaction concept. Social Science and Medicine 139:26–35.

Tsai, A. C., E. Mendenhall, J. A. Trostle, and I. Kawachi. 2017. Co-occurring epidemics, syndemics, and population health. Lancet 389(10072):978–982.

Tseng, C.-H. 2018. Metformin decreases risk of tuberculosis infection in type 2 diabetes patients. Journal of Clinical Medicine 7(9):264.

Turnbaugh, P. J., R. E. Ley, M. Hamady, C. M. Fraser-Liggett, R. Knight, and J. I. Gordon. 2007. The human microbiome project. Nature 449(7164):804–810.

UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS). 2017. UNAIDS data 2017. https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/2017_data-book_en.pdf (accessed September 19, 2019).

Van Cauwenberghe, C., C. Van Broeckhoven, and K. Sleegers. 2015. The genetic landscape of Alzheimer disease: Clinical implications and perspectives. Genetics in Medicine 18:421.

Varma, J. 2019. Adapting public health practice to our new understanding of microbes and health in Africa. PowerPoint presented at Breaking Down Silos: The Convergence of Infectious Diseases and Noncomunicable Diseases, Washington, DC.

Velasquez-Manoff, M. 2015. Gut microbiome: The peacekeepers. Nature 518(7540):S3–S11.

Viney, K., J. Cavanaugh, T. Kienene, D. Harley, P. M. Kelly, A. Sleigh, J. O’Connor, and S. Mase. 2015. Tuberculosis and diabetes mellitus in the republic of Kiribati: A case-control study. Tropical Medicine and International Health 20(5):650–657.

Vivarelli, S., R. Salemi, S. Candido, L. Falzone, M. Santagati, S. Stefani, F. Torino, G. L. Banna, G. Tonini, and M. Libra. 2019. Gut microbiota and cancer: From pathogenesis to therapy. Cancers 11(1):38.

Walker, C., and N. Unwin. 2010. Estimates of the impact of diabetes on the incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis in different ethnic groups in England. Thorax 65:578–581.

Wangler, M. F., Y. Hu, and J. M. Shulman. 2017. Drosophila and genome-wide association studies: A review and resource for the functional dissection of human complex traits. Disease Models and Mechanisms 10(2):77–88.

Weimann, A., D. Dai, and T. Oni. 2016. A cross-sectional and spatial analysis of the prevalence of multimorbidity and its association with socioeconomic disadvantage in South Africa: A comparison between 2008 and 2012. Social Science and Medicine 163:144–156.

Weiss, R. A. and A. J. McMichael. 2004. Social and environmental risk factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Nature Medicine 10:S70–S76.

Welter, D., J. MacArthur, J. Morales, T. Burdett, P. Hall, h. Junkins, A. Klemm, P. Flicek, T. Manolio, L. Hindorff, and H. Parkinson. 2014. The NHGRI GWAS Catalog: A curated resource of SNP-trait associations. Nucleic Acids Research 42(D1):D1001–D1006.

West, C., H. Renz, M. C. Jenmalm, A. L. Kozyrskyj, K. J. Allen, P. Vuillermin, and S. L. Prescott. 2015. The gut microbiota and inflammatory noncommunicable disease: Associations and potentials for gut microbiota therapies. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 135(1):3–13.

WHO (World Health Organization). 2008. The global burden of disease: 2004 update. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

WHO. 2011. Collaborative framework for care and control of tuberculosis and diabetes. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

WHO. 2018a. Global tuberculosis report 2018. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

WHO. 2018b. Noncommunicable diseases. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

WHO. 2018c. Noncommunicable disease country profile— Swaziland. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

Willen, S. S., M. Knipper, C. E. Abadia-Barrero, and N. Davidovitch. 2017. Syndemic vulnerability and the right to health. Lancet 389(10072):964–977.

World Bank. 1993. Investing in health. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Xu, Z. and R. Knight. 2015. Dietary effects on human gut microbiome diversity. British Journal of Nutrition 113:S1–S5.

Yassour, M., T. Vatanen, H. Siljander, A.-M. Hämäläinen, T. Härkönen, S. J. Ryhänen, E. A. Franzosa, H. Vlamakis, C. Huttenhower, D. Gevers, E. S. Lander, M. Knip, and R. J. Xavier. 2016. Natural history of the infant gut microbiome and impact of antibiotic treatment on bacterial strain diversity and stability. Science Translational Medicine 8(343):343–381.

Yatsunenko, T. F., E. Rey, M. J. Manary, I. Trehan, M. G. Dominguez-Bello, M. Contreras, M. Magris, G. Hidalgo, R. N. Baldassano, A. P. Anokhin, A. C. Heath, B. Warner, J. Reeder, J. Kuczynski, J. G. Caporaso, C. A. Lozupone, C. Lauber, J. C. Clemente, D. Knights, R. Knight, and J. I. Gordon. 2012. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature 486(7402):222–227.

Young, N., M. Taegtmeyer, G. Aol, G. M. Bigogo, P. A. Phillips-Howard, J. Hill, K. F. Laserson, F. Ter Kuile, and M. Desai. 2018. Integrated point-of-care testing (POCT) of HIV, syphilis, malaria and anaemia in antenatal clinics in western Kenya: A longitudinal implementation study. PLoS One 13(7):e0198784.

Zheng, P., Z. Li, and Z. Zhou. 2018. Gut microbiome in type 1 diabetes: A comprehensive review. Diabetes and Metabolic Research Review 34(7):e3043.

Zhou, B., Y. Lu, K. Hajifathalian, J. Bentham, M. Di Cesare, G. Danaei, H. Bixby, M. J. Cowan, M. K. Ali, C. Taddei, W. C. Lo, B. Reis-Santos, G. A. Stevens, L. M. Riley, J. J. Miranda, P. Bjerregaard, J. A. Rivera, H. M. Fouad, G. Ma, J. C. Mbanya, S. T. McGarvey, V. Mohan, A. Onat, A. Pilav, A. Ramachandran, H. B. Romdhane, C. J. Paciorek, J. E. Bennett, M. Ezzati, Z. A. Abdeen, K. Abdul Kadir, N. M. Abu-Rmeileh, B. Acosta-Cazares, R. Adams, W. Aekplakorn, C. A. Aguilar-Salinas, C. Agyemang, A. Ahmadvand, A. R. Al-Othman, A. Alkerwi, P. Amouyel, A. Amuzu, L. B. Andersen, S. A. Anderssen, R. M. Anjana, H. Aounallah-Skhiri, T. Aris, N. Arlappa, D. Arveiler, F. K. Assah, M. Avdicová, F. Azizi, N. Balakrishna, P. Bandosz, C. M. Barbagallo, A. Barceló, A. M. Batieha, L. A. Baur, H. B. Romdhane, M. Benet, A. Bernabe-Ortiz, S. Bharadwaj, S. K. Bhargava, Y. Bi, P. Bjerregaard, E. Bjertness, M. B. Bjertness, C. Björkelund, A. Blokstra, S. Bo, B. O. Boehm, C. P. Boissonnet, P. Bovet, I. Brajkovich, J. Breckenkamp, H. Brenner, L. M. Brewster, G. R. Brian, G. Bruno, A. Bugge, A. Cabrera de León, G. Can, A. P. Cândido, V. Capuano, A. C. Carlsson, M. J. Carvalho, F. F. Casanueva, J. P. Casas, C. A. Caserta, K. Castetbon, S. Chamukuttan, N. Chaturvedi, C. J. Chen, F. Chen, S. Chen, C. Y. Cheng, A. Chetrit, S. T. Chiou, Y. Cho, J. Chudek, R. Cifkova, F. Claessens, H. Concin, C. Cooper, R. Cooper, S. Costanzo, D. Cottel, C. Cowell, A. B. Crujeiras, G. D’Arrigo, J. Dallongeville, R. Dankner, L. Dauchet, G. de Gaetano, S. De Henauw, M. Deepa, A. Dehghan, V. Deschamps, K. Dhana, A. F. Di Castelnuovo, S. Djalalinia, K. Doua, W. Drygas, Y. Du, V. Dzerve, E. E. Egbagbe, R. Eggertsen, J. El Ati, R. Elosua, R. T. Erasmus, C. Erem, G. Ergor, L. Eriksen,

J. Escobedo-de la Peña, C. H. Fall, F. Farzadfar, F. J. Felix-Redondo, T. S. Ferguson, D. Fernández-Bergés, M. Ferrari, C. Ferreccio, E. J. Feskens, J. D. Finn, B. Föger, L. H. Foo, A. S. Forslund, H. M. Fouad, D. K. Francis, C. Franco Mdo, O. H. Franco, G. Frontera, T. Furusawa, Z. Gaciong, S. P. Garnett, J. M. Gaspoz, M. Gasull, L. Gates, J. M. Geleijnse, A. Ghasemian, A. Ghimire, S. Giampaoli, F. Gianfagna, J. Giovannelli, A. Giwercman, M. G. Gross, J. P. González Rivas, M. B. Gorbea, F. Gottrand, D. Grafnetter, T. Grodzicki, A. Grøntved, G. Gruden, D. Gu, O. P. Guan, R. Guerrero, I. Guessous, A. L. Guimaraes, L. Gutierrez, I. R. Hambleton, R. Hardy, R. Hari Kumar, J. Hata, J. He, C. Heidemann, S. Herrala, I. T. Hihtaniemi, S. Y. Ho, S. C. Ho, A. Hofman, C. M. Hormiga, B. L. Horta, L. Houti, C. Howitt, T. T. Htay, A. S. Htet, M. M. Htike, Y. Hu, A. S. Hussieni, I. Huybrechts, N. Hwalla, L. Iacoviello, A. G. Iannone, M. M. Ibrahim, N. Ikeda, M. A. Ikram, V. E. Irazola, M. Islam, M. Iwasaki, J. M. Jacobs, T. Jafar, K. M. Jamil, G. Jasienska, C. Q. Jiang, J. B. Jonas, P. Joshi, A. Kafatos, O. Kalter-Leibovici, A. Kasaeian, J. Katz, P. Kaur, M. Kavousi, S. Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi, R. Kelishadi, A. P. Kengne, M. Kersting, Y. S. Khader, D. Khalili, Y. H. Khang, S. Kiechl, J. Kim, P. Kolsteren, P. Korrovits, W. Kratzer, D. Kromhout, U. M. Kujala, K. Kula, C. Kyobutungi, T. Laatikainen, C. Lachat, Y. Laid, T. H. Lam, O. Landrove, V. Lanska, G. Lappas, A. Laxmaiah, C. Leclercq, J. Lee, J. Lee, T. Lehtimäki, R. Lekhraj, L. M. León-Muñoz, Y. Li, W. Y. Lim, M. F. Lima-Costa, H. H. Lin, X. Lin, L. Lissner, R. Lorbeer, J. E. Lozano, D. Luksiene, A. Lundqvist, P. Lytsy, G. Ma, G. L. Machado-Coelho, S. Machi, S. Maggi, D. J. Magliano, M. Makdisse, K. Mallikharjuna Rao, Y. Manios, E. Manzato, P. Margozzini, P. Marques-Vidal, R. Martorell, S. R. Masoodi, E. B. Mathiesen, T. E. Matsha, J. C. Mbanya, S. R. McFarlane, S. T. McGarvey, S. McLachlan, B. A. McNulty, S. Mediene-Benchekor, A. Meirhaeghe, A. M. Menezes, S. Merat, Meshram, II, J. Mi, J. F. Miquel, J. J. Miranda, M. K. Mohamed, K. Mohammad, N. Mohammadifard, V. Mohan, M. F. Mohd Yusoff, N. C. Møller, D. Molnár, C. K. Mondo, A. Morejon, L. A. Moreno, K. Morgan, G. Moschonis, M. Mossakowska, A. Mostafa, J. Mota, J. Motta, T. T. Mu, M. L. Muiesan, M. Müller-Nurasyid, J. Mursu, G. Nagel, J. Námešná, E. E. Nang, V. B. NangThetia, E. M. Navarrete-Muñoz, N. C. Ndiaye, I. Nenko, F. Nervi, N. D. Nguyen, Q. N. Nguyen, R. E. Nieto-Martínez, G. Ning, T. Ninomiya, M. Noale, D. Noto, M. A. Nsour, A. M. Ochoa-Avilés, K. Oh, A. Onat, P. Ordunez, C. Osmond, J. A. Otero, E. Owusu-Dabo, E. Pahomova, L. Palmieri, S. Panda-Jonas, F. Panza, M. Parsaeian, S. V. Peixoto, C. Pelletier, M. Peltonen, A. Peters, N. Peykari, S. T. Pham, A. Pilav, F. Pitakaka, A. Piwonska, J. Piwonski, P. Plans-Rubió, M. Porta, M. L. Portegies, H. Poustchi, R. Pradeepa, J. F. Price, M. Punab, R. F. Qasrawi, M. Qorbani, R. Radisauskas, M. Rahman, O. Raitakari, S. R. Rao, A. Ramachandran, J. Ramke, R. Ramos, S. Rampal, W. Rathmann, J. Redon, P. F. Reganit, F. Rigo, S. M. Robinson, C. Robitaille, F. Rodríguez-Artalejo, C. Rodriguez-Perez Mdel, L. A. Rodríguez-Villamizar, R. Rojas-Martinez, K. Ronkainen, A. Rosengren, A. Rubinstein, O. Rui, B. S. Ruiz-Betancourt, R. V. Russo Horimoto, M. Rutkowski, C. Sabanayagam, H. S. Sachdev, O. Saidi, S. Sakarya, B. Salanave, J. T. Salonen, M. Salvetti, J. Sánchez-Abanto, D. Santos, R. N. dos Santos, R. Santos, J. L. Saramies, L. B. Sardinha, N. Sarrafzadegan, K. U. Saum, M. Scazufca, H. Schargrodsky, C. ScheidtNave, A. A. Sein, S. K. Sharma, J. E. Shaw, K. Shibuya, Y. Shin, R. Shiri, R. Siantar, A. M. Sibai, M. Simon, J. Simons, L. A. Simons, M. Sjostrom, J. Slowikowska-Hilczer, P. Slusarczyk, L. Smeeth, M. B. Snijder, H. K. So, E. Sobngwi, S. Söderberg, V. Solfrizzi, E. Sonestedt, A. Soumare, J. A. Staessen, M. G. Stathopoulou, J. Steene-Johannessen, P. Stehle, A. D. Stein, J. Stessman, D. Stöckl, J. Stokwiszewski, K. Stronks, M. W. Strufaldi, C. A. Sun, J. Sundström, Y. T. Sung, P. Suriyawongpaisal, R. G. Sy, E. S. Tai, A. Tamosiunas, L. Tang, M. Tarawneh, C. B. Tarqui-Mamani, A. Taylor,

H. Theobald, L. Thijs, B. H. Thuesen, H. K. Tolonen, J. S. Tolstrup, M. Topbas, M. Torrent, P. Traissac, O. T. Trinh, M. K. Tulloch-Reid, T. P. Tuomainen, M. L. Turley, C. Tzourio, P. Ueda, F. A. Ukoli, H. Ulmer, H. M. Uusitalo, G. Valdivia, D. Valvi, L. van Rossem, I. G. van Valkengoed, D. Vanderschueren, D. Vanuzzo, T. Vega, G. Velasquez-Melendez, G. Veronesi, W. M. Verschuren, R. Verstraeten, L. Viet, J. Vioque, J. K. Virtanen, S. Visvikis-Siest, B. Viswanathan, P. Vollenweider, S. Voutilainen, M. Vrijheid, A. N. Wade, A. Wagner, J. Walton, W. N. Wan Mohamud, F. Wang, M. D. Wang, Q. Wang, Y. X. Wang, S. G. Wannamethee, D. Weerasekera, P. H. Whincup, K. Widhalm, A. Wiecek, A. H. Wijga, R. J. Wilks, J. Willeit, T. Wilsgaard, B. Wojtyniak, T. Y. Wong, J. Woo, M. Woodward, F. C. Wu, S. L. Wu, H. Xu, W. Yan, X. Yang, X. Ye, A. Yoshihara, N. O. Younger-Coleman, S. Zambon, A. H. Zargar, T. Zdrojewski, W. Zhao, Y. Zheng, and J. Zuñiga Cisneros. 2016. Worldwide trends in diabetes since 1980: A pooled analysis of 751 population-based studies with 4.4 million participants. Lancet 387(10027):1513–1530.

Zimmermann, M., M. Zimmermann-Kogadeeva, R. Wegmann, and A. L. Goodman. 2019. Separating host and microbiome contributions to drug pharmacokinetics and toxicity. Science 363(6427):eaat9931.

Zimmet, P. Z. 2017. Diabetes and its drivers: The largest epidemic in human history? Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology 3(1):1.

This page intentionally left blank.