Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Appendix A
Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes
A key element of the Decadal Survey (NASEM, 2018) was the science and applications traceability matrixes (SATMs), which trace the priority science questions in five thematic areas to the measurements and observing systems needed to answer them. The matrixes do not systematically connect the measurements with the underlying geodetic infrastructure. Consequently, this committee modified the Decadal Survey matrixes to emphasize the geodetic infrastructure by (a) adding a geodetic needs column, (b) removing rows of measurements that do not depend on the geodetic infrastructure, and (c) removing columns that are not important for understanding the connections between the science and the geodetic infrastructure. The geodetic needs column includes the measurement specifications in the Decadal Survey matrix as well as geodetic needs identified by the committee. The committee did not modify the Decadal Survey text or numbers.
The geodetic needs were drafted by the working groups at the February 2019 workshop and subsequently refined by the committee. This appendix presents the SATMs for the science questions discussed in Chapters 3–7.
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
TABLE A.1 Sea-Level Rise Reduced SATM
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION C-1. How much will sealevel rise, globally and regionally, over the next decade and beyond, and what will be the role of ice sheets and ocean heat storage? | C-1a. Determine the global mean sea-level rise to within 0.5 mm/yr over the course of a decade. | Sea-surface height |
Coverage: Global or near global Spatial: 7 km along-track Temporal: Every 10 days Accuracy/Stability: 30 mm at 7 km, 1 mm/yr global Geodetic needs:
|
| Terrestrial reference frame |
Temporal: Monthly Coverage: Global every year Accuracy/Stability: 1 mm, 0.1 mm/yr/decade Geodetic needs:
|
||
| Ocean mass distribution |
Spatial: 300 km2 Temporal: Monthly Coverage: Global every month Accuracy/Stability: 15 mm/0.1 mm/yr/decade Geodetic needs:
|
||
| C-1b. Determine the change in the global oceanic heat uptake to within 0.1 W/m2 over the course of a decade. | Sea-surface height | See C-1a. | |
| Ocean mass distribution | See C-1a. | ||
| Ocean temperature and salinity profile |
Spatial: 3° × 3° Temporal: 10 days Coverage: Global every 10 days Accuracy/Stability: 0.01 deg/0.01 psu Geodetic needs:
|
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| C-1c. Determine the changes in total ice-sheet mass balance to within 15 Gton/yr over the course of a decade and the changes in surface mass balance and glacier ice discharge with the same accuracy over the entire ice sheets, continuously, for decades to come. | Ice-sheet mass |
Spatial: 100 km Temporal: Monthly Coverage: Global Precision: 10 mm water equivalent on scale of 200 km Geodetic needs:
|
|
| Ice-sheet velocity | Spatial: 100 m Coverage: Global Temporal: Weekly to daily Precision: 1 m/yr in fast flow areas, 10 mm/yr near ice divides Geodetic needs: Orbit accuracy: <0.1 m RMS total position (NISAR requirement). |
||
| Ice-sheet elevation |
Spatial: 100 m Coverage: Global Temporal: Weekly to Daily Precision: 0.1–0.2 m Geodetic needs:
|
||
| Ice-sheet bed elevation, ice-shelf cavity shape |
Spatial: 100 m Coverage: Global Temporal: Once Precision: 30 m Geodetic needs:
|
||
| Ice-sheet surface mass balance | Spatial: 5 km Coverage: Global Temporal: Monthly Precision: 1 mm/yr Geodetic needs: Improve surface mass balance models with assimilation methods. |
||
| C-1d. Determine regional sea-level change to within 1.5–2.5 mm/yr over the course of a decade (1.5 corresponds to a ~6,000 km2 region, 2.5 corresponds to a ~4,000 km2 region). | Sea-surface height |
Spatial: 250 m Coverage: Global every 20 days Temporal: Weekly Precision: 0.1 m Geodetic needs:
|
|
| Land vertical motions | Spatial: 100 m along coasts Coverage: Global Temporal: Monthly Precision: 1 mm, 1 mm/yr Geodetic needs: Capture fingerprints in general (not just at coastlines): loading by water and ice plus that caused by GIA. |
||
| Ocean mass distribution | See C-1a. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION S-3. How will local sea-level change along coastlines around the world in the next decade to century? | S-3a. Quantify the rates of sea-level change and its driving processes at global, regional, and local scales, with uncertainty <0.1 mm/yr for global mean sea-level equivalent and <0.5 mm/yr sea-level equivalent at resolution of 10 km. | Ice topography | Spatial: 100 km2 Temporal: Monthly or less Precision: >0.1 m for mean, 0.25 m/yr for change Geodetic needs: Orbit stability required 4 mm/yr. |
| Gravity | Spatial: 200 km at equator Coverage: Global Temporal: Monthly Precision: 10 mm water equivalent Geodetic needs: Desire methods that would mitigate the problem of leakage in the solutions between ocean and land at their mutual boundaries. |
||
| 3D surface deformation vectors on ice sheets | Spatial: 100 m Coverage: Ice sheets Temporal: Monthly Precision: cm/yr Geodetic needs: Orbit accuracy: <0.1 m RMS total position. |
||
| Sea-surface height |
Spatial: 100 km Coverage: Global Temporal: Monthly Precision: 20 mm Geodetic needs:
|
||
| Terrestrial reference frame | See C-1a. | ||
| In situ temperature/salinity | Spatial: 300 km Comparable to Argo Geodetic needs: Stable continuous measurements with greater spatial density. Connect and integrate these with other coastal observing systems. |
||
| Ice velocity | Spatial: 100 km2 Temporal: Monthly Precision: <0.1 m/yr Geodetic needs: <0.1 m RSS total position. |
||
| High-resolution topography | Spatial: 1 m Precision: Vertical accuracy 0.1 m Geodetic needs: <30 mm radially RMS; <0.2 m RSS cross-track + along-track. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| S-3b. Determine vertical motion of land along coastlines at uncertainty <1 mm/yr. | Bare-earth topography |
Spatial: 1 m Coverage: Global Precision: 0.1 m vertical Geodetic needs:
|
|
| Land-surface deformation | Spatial: 50 m Coverage: Global Temporal: Weekly Precision: 5–10 mm vertical Geodetic needs: Orbit accuracy: <0.1 m RMS total position. |
||
| QUESTION C-6. Can we significantly improve seasonal to decadal forecasts of societally relevant climate variables? | C-6a. Decrease uncertainty, by a factor of 2, in quantification of surface and subsurface ocean states for initialization of seasonal-to-decadal forecasts. | Sea-surface height | Spatial: 1–3 km Coverage: Global Temporal: Weekly Geodetic needs: See sea-surface height (C-1a). |
| Sea-ice thickness | Spatial: Few km Coverage: Global Temporal: 10 days Precision: <30 mm Geodetic needs: Radial orbit accuracy better than 30 mm for ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2.aDesire improved ocean tides in sea-ice cover conditions. Computational infrastructure issue. |
||
| Surface currents | Spatial: 5–10 km Temporal: 1–2 days Precision: ≤1 m/s Geodetic needs: Knowledge of orbital velocity <1 m/s. |
||
| Ocean mass | Spatial: 100 km Precision: 20 mm Geodetic needs: Ocean bottom pressure changes. |
||
| C-6b. Decrease uncertainty, by a factor of 2, in quantification of land surface states for initialization of seasonal forecasts. | Total water storage | Spatial: 100 km Temporal: Weekly Precision: 0.04 volumetric percent Geodetic needs: Maintain interdisciplinary connection to hydrology community. |
a The instrument specifications in this cell were added after release of the prepublication version to clarify the geodetic needs for the sea-ice thickness observable.
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
TABLE A.2 Terrestrial Water Cycle Reduced SATM
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION H-2. How do anthropogenic changes in climate, land use, water use, and water storage interact and modify the water and energy cycles locally, regionally, and globally and what are the short- and long-term consequences? | H-2b. Quantify the magnitude of anthropogenic processes that cause changes in radiative forcing, temperature, snowmelt, and ice melt as they alter downstream water quantity and quality. | Snow and ice albedo, contaminant type (dust, soot) and concentration, land cover. Surface temperature. Glacier, river, and lake mapping and characterization |
Spectral snow and ice albedo, optical properties and concentrations of contaminants (dust and soot), surface temperature to ±1 K. Geodetic needs for all questions: Support for TRF at current level of stability (international network of VLBI, SLR, GNSS stations), regional GNSS networks at 40 km spacing, GRACE, and current/future InSAR missions. Notably, GNSS loading applications for hydrology require center of mass velocity and scale rate stability of 0.2 mm/yr. This requirement is equivalent to 10 mm/yr of water. In addition, stability of the terrestrial reference frame on seasonal time scales is needed for hydrological studies. More study is needed to assure that this requirement is being met. Specific geodetic needs:
|
| H-2c. Quantify how changes in land use, land cover, and water use related to agricultural activities, food production, and forest management affect water quality and especially groundwater recharge, threatening sustainability of future water supplies. | Recharge rates (i.e., space-time rates of change in groundwater storage and availability) at 1 km (desired) up to 10 km (useful) scale globally at 10-day intervals with accuracy of better than ±1 mm/day | Soil moisture profile to 4% volumetric accuracy in top 1 m of the soil column. Geodetic needs: Daily GNSS positions can be used to quantify changes in total water storage (soil moisture, SWE, ground water). These types of studies require continued support for GNSS networks, high-precision GNSS analysis software, and the underlying TRF. InSAR and GRACE provide complimentary measurements of total water storage at different temporal and spatial scales. Changes in vadose zone moisture and in groundwater storage. Changes in groundwater levels. Changes in snow water equivalent. Geodetic needs: See H-2b. Land-surface deflection to 10 mm accuracy, 100 m spatial resolution. Geodetic needs: Program of record supports this application using both InSAR and GNSS (daily positioning precision is ~5 mm). See H-2b. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION H-4. How does the water cycle interact with other Earth system processes to change the predictability and impacts of hazardous events and hazard-chains (e.g., floods, wildfires, landslides, coastal loss, subsidence, droughts, human health, and ecosystem health), and how do we improve preparedness and mitigation of water-related extreme events? | H-4a. Monitor and understand hazard response in rugged terrain and land margins to heavy rainfall, temperature and evaporation extremes, and strong winds at multiple temporal and spatial scales. This socioeconomic priority depends on success of addressing H-1b, H-1c, H-2a, and H-2c. | Magnitude and frequency of severe storms. Depth and extent of floods |
Precipitation, snowmelt, water depth, and water flow in soil at time and space scales consistent with events. Geodetic needs:
|
| H-4b. Quantify key meteorological, glaciological, and solid Earth dynamical and state variables and processes controlling flash floods, and rapid hazard chains to improve detection, prediction, and preparedness. (This is a critical socioeconomic priority that depends on success of addressing H-1b, H-1c, and H-4a.) | Rainfall intensity and volume for storms in the 95th percentile of values specific to areas, especially estimates in mountainous terrain where other measurement sources are not available, soil moisture, SWE, and glacier changes |
Precipitation, snowmelt, and flow in soil and glaciers at time and space scales consistent with events. Geodetic needs:
|
|
| QUESTION S-6. How much water is traveling deep underground, and how does it affect geological processes and water supplies? | S-6a. Determine the fluid pressures, storage, and flow in confined aquifers at spatial resolution of 100 m and pressure of 1 kPa (0.1 m head). | Topography | Topography at 10 m resolution. Geodetic needs: Groundwater levels measured in wells are reported to 3 mm precision and referenced to land surface. Accurate elevations are required to determine gradients of groundwater flow, particularly where gradients are small. |
| Land-surface deformation | For seasonal variations: 10 mm/yr measured weekly at 10 m spatial sampling (which allows stacking for sub-10 mm secular trends). Geodetic needs: See H-2c. Note: GNSS can measure daily vertical coordinates ~5 mm. InSAR can measure land surface deformation with very high precision in many regions. |
||
| Surface water distribution | 100 m spatial (e.g., SWOT), stream gauge network, seasonally. Geodetic needs: Measurement of surface water distribution from space (i.e., SWOT) requires stable reference including POD of the satellite. GNSS-IR can provide cal/val data for SWOT, which would require GNSS sites near lakes and rivers. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| S-6b. Measure all significant fluxes in and out of the groundwater system across the recharge area. | Soil moisture, snow/SWE, rainfall |
1–5 km spatial, from SMAP, other radar, thermal inertia using TIR and VNIR data, and GPS reflections, weekly. Geodetic needs:
|
|
| Gravity | Monthly, uncertainty 10 mm water-equivalent thickness at resolution of 100 km. Geodetic needs: Support for GRACE Follow On and analysis products (mascons). |
||
| Topography | Vertical accuracy of 0.1 m, resolution of 1 m. Geodetic needs: Requires local ground control (GNSS networks) to support suborbital navigation. |
||
| Deformation from fluid fluxes (uses several above measurements) | Spatiotemporal distribution of subsidence/uplift at 3 mm vertical per year, 5 m horizontal, weekly. Coverage over active reservoirs. Geodetic needs: InSAR and daily GNSS verticals using the current program of record are precise enough for current water management applications. |
||
| Land-surface deformation | Spatiotemporal distribution of subsidence/uplift at 10 mm vertical, 5 m horizontal, weekly. Coverage over managed watersheds, other watersheds of interest. Geodetic needs: Program of record suggests 40 km spacing of GNSS stations, with increased spatial deployment in watersheds. Combination of InSAR and GNSS data products can provide improved spatial and temporal sensitivity. |
||
| S-6c. Determine the transport and storage properties in situ within a factor of 3 for shallow aquifers and an order of magnitude for deeper systems. | Deformation from fluid fluxes (uses several above measurements) | Spatiotemporal distribution of subsidence/uplift at 3 mm/yr vertical, 5 m horizontal, weekly. Coverage over active reservoirs. Geodetic needs: See S-6b. |
|
| S-6d. Determine the impact of water-related human activities and natural water flow on earthquakes. | Vertical surface deformation | Spatiotemporal distribution of subsidence/uplift at 3 mm/yr vertical, 5 m horizontal, weekly. Geodetic needs: See S-6b. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
TABLE A.3 Geological Hazards Reduced SATM
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION S-1. How can large-scale geological hazards be accurately forecast in a socially relevant time frame? | S-1a. Measure the pre-, syn-, and post eruption surface deformation and products of Earth’s entire active land volcano inventory at a time scale of days to weeks. | Land-surface deformation |
At least two components of land-surface deformation over length scales ranging from 10 m to 1,000 km and a precision of 1 mm at a sampling frequency related to the earthquake or volcanic activity. L- or S-band InSAR with ionospheric correction, GPS/GNSS. Geodetic needs:
|
| Topography | High spatial resolution (5 m) bare-earth topography at 1 m vertical accuracy over all volcanoes. Spacecraft swath lidar or radar. Geodetic needs: Orbit accuracy better than 0.1 m radial. Requires lidar pointing accuracy of better than 2 microradian (Abshire et al., 2015). Conduct lidar survey before an event to enable a repeat-lidar survey after the event. Requires local/regional ground calibration/validation. |
||
| S-1b. Measure and forecast interseismic, preseismic, coseismic, and postseismic activity over tectonically active areas on time scales ranging from hours to decades. | Land-surface deformation | InSAR and GNSS same as S-1a. Geodetic needs: For very large subduction zone earthquakes that affect GNSS stations over much of the Earth’s surface (e.g., 2004 Sumatra), the 1–10 mm accuracy maintained over 10 years will require time-dependent corrections to the reference frame as in ITRF2014 (Altamimi et al., 2016). |
|
| Large spatial scale gravity change | Gravity change for large events (GRACE and follow-on missions). Geodetic needs: 1 microgal accuracy at spatial resolution of 300 km or better and sampling better than monthly. |
||
| Topography | High spatial resolution (1 m), bare-earth topography at 0.1 m vertical accuracy over selected tectonic areas (aircraft/UAV lidar). Geodetic needs: Requires local GNSS ground station for differential GNSS aircraft positioning of better than 50 mm. |
||
| Land cover change | High spatial resolution (1 m) stereo optical imagery (commercial optical). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1a. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| S-1c. Forecast and monitor landslides, especially those near population centers. | Land-surface deformation | At least two components of land-surface deformation at <50 m spatial resolution and 1 mm/yr at a temporal frequency < seasonal (e.g., InSAR and GPS/GNSS). L- or S-band InSAR, GPS/GNSS (complements ground-based seismic data). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1a. |
|
| High-resolution topography | Spatial resolution 1–5 m, vertical 0.5 m (aircraft/UAV lidar). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1b. |
||
| High spatial resolution time series of distribution of vegetation and rock/soil composition | Hyperspectral VNIR/SWIR and TIR data at 30–45 m spatial resolution and ~weekly temporal resolution. Moderate-resolution imaging/spectometry (e.g., ASTER, Landsat, Hyperion but at slightly improved spatial resolution and much improved temporal resolution). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1a. |
||
| S-1d. Forecast, model, and measure tsunami generation, propagation, and run-up for major seafloor events. | Topography and shallow bathymetry |
High spatial resolution (1 m), bare-earth topography at 0.1 m vertical accuracy over selected tectonic areas. Geodetic needs:
|
|
| Sea-surface tsunami waves |
Tsunami wave height (0.1 m at 1 min sampling). Swath altimetry (e.g., SWOT), GPS/GNSS ships, buoys, ocean altimetry, complements seafloor pressure changes. Geodetic needs:
|
||
| Global bathymetry and seamless nearshore bathymetry | Global marine gravity from swath radar altimetry (SWOT). Swath altimetry. Geodetic needs: Altimetry satellite orbit accuracy <20 mm radial. |
||
| Optical, radar, and InSAR change detection on demand with low latency processing and distribution | Enable high spatial resolution space-borne or aircraft asset that can provide timely information to relief efforts (commercial 1 m optical, GPS/GNSS). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1a. |
||
| Rapid characterization of the magnitude of earthquakes | 1 Hz deformation time series. Terrestrial seismic and GPS/GNSS networks. Geodetic needs: Need for real-time, high-rate GPS/GNSS data at 1 Hz together with near real-time data processing to final station displacements. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION S-2. How do geological disasters directly impact the Earth system and society following an event? | S-2a. Rapidly capture the transient processes following disasters for improved predictive modeling as well as response and mitigation through optimal retasking and analysis of space data. | Provide rapid deformation map acquisitions and interconnectivity to other sensors | At least two components of land-surface deformation over 10 m to 1,000 km length scales at 10 mm precision and as soon as possible after the event. Adequate resolution of 10 mm/week for afterslip applications. InSAR. Geodetic needs: Same as S-1. |
| S-2b. Assess surface deformation (<10 mm), extent of surface change (<100 m spatial resolution) and atmospheric contamination, and the composition and temperature of volcanic products following a volcanic eruption (hourly to daily temporal sampling). | Land-surface deformation | At least two components of land-surface deformation and surface fracturing over length scales ranging from 10 m to 1,000 km and temporal resolution of 1 mm/yr at a sampling frequency related to the volcanic activity (InSAR and GPS/GNSS) everywhere. L- or S-band InSAR with ionospheric correction (e.g., from GPS/GNSS global ionosphere maps). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1. |
|
| S-2c. Assess co- and postseismic ground deformation (spatial resolution of 100 m and an accuracy of 10 mm) and damage to infrastructure following an earthquake. | Land-surface deformation | At least two components of land-surface deformation at 100 m spatial resolution and 1 mm/yr at a temporal frequency related to the tectonic activity (InSAR and GPS/GNSS). Need more than 10 years of interseismic observations and 5 years of postseismic observations. L- or S-band InSAR with ionospheric correction (e.g., from GPS/GNSS global ionosphere maps). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1. |
|
| Large spatial scale gravity change | Gravity change for large events. Gravity (e.g., GRACE-FO). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1. |
||
| Topography | High spatial resolution (1 m), bare-earth topography at 0.1 m vertical accuracy over selected tectonic areas (aircraft/UAV lidar). Geodetic needs: Same as S-1. |
||
| Optical imaging | Map surface rupture, liquefaction features and damage at spatial scales better than 5 m (Worldview, aircraft/drone imaging). Geodetic needs: No new geodetic components except routine POD of satellite instruments. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
TABLE A.4 Weather and Climate Reduced SATM
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION C-2. How can we reduce the uncertainty in the amount of future warming of Earth as a function of fossil fuel emissions, improve our ability to predict local and regional climate response to natural and anthropogenic forcings, and reduce the uncertainty in global climate sensitivity that drives uncertainty in future economic impacts and mitigation/adaptation strategies? | C-2b. Reduce uncertainty in water vapor feedback by a factor of 2. | Atmospheric water vapor and temperature profiles |
Vertical resolution/coverage: 2 km from 0–15 km altitude Space/time sampling: 100 km horizontal resolution/monthly average Time/space coverage: decadal trends/global Accuracy/stability: 0.03 K (1s) Geodetic needs:
|
| C-2c. Reduce uncertainty in temperature lapse rate feedback by a factor of 2. | Atmospheric temperature profile | Vertical resolution/coverage: 2 km from 0 to 15 km altitude Space/time sampling: 2 km vertical resolution, 100 km horizontal resolution/monthly Time/space coverage: decadal trends/global Accuracy/stability: 0.03 K (1s) Geodetic needs: Same as C-2b. |
|
| QUESTION W-2. How can environmental predictions of weather and air quality be extended to seamlessly forecast Earth system conditions at lead times of 1 week to 2 months? | W-2a. Improve the observed and modeled representation of natural, low-frequency modes of weather/climate variability (e.g., MJO, ENSO), including upscale interactions between the large-scale circulation and organization of convection and slowly varying boundary processes to extend the lead time of useful prediction skills by 50% for forecast times of 1 week to 2 months. Advances require improved: (1) process understanding and assimilation/modeling capabilities of atmospheric convection, mesoscale organization, and atmosphere and ocean boundary layers, (2) global initial conditions relevant to these quantities/processes. Observations needed for boundary layer, surface conditions, and convection are described in W-1, W-3, and W-4, respectively. | Vertical temperature profile | Boundary layer through middle atmosphere Threshold horizontal resolution 5 km, objective horizontal resolution 3 km, both at 1 km vertical resolution Threshold refresh 3 hr, objective refresh global 90 min and CONUS 60 min Measured with 1 K RMS. Geodetic needs: Same as C-2b. |
| Vertical water vapor profile | Boundary layer through middle atmosphere Threshold horizontal resolution 5 km, objective horizontal resolution 3 km, both at 1 km vertical resolution Threshold refresh 3 hr, objective refresh global 90 min and CONUS 60 min Measured with 10% LTH RMS and 20% UTH RMS. Geodetic needs: Same as C-2b. |
||
| Surface pressure | To within 1 mb. Geodetic needs: Maintain pressure, temperature, and humidity at SLR and VLBI stations. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
TABLE A.5 Ecosystem Reduced SATM
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION E-1. What are the structure, function, and biodiversity of Earth’s ecosystems, and how and why are they changing in time and space? | E-1a. Quantify the distribution of the functional traits, functional types, and composition of vegetation and marine biomass, spatially and over time. E-1b. Quantify the three-dimensional (3D) structure of terrestrial vegetation and 3D distribution of marine biomass within the euphotic zone, spatially and over time. E-1c. Quantify the physiological dynamics of terrestrial and aquatic primary producers. E-1d. Quantify moisture status of soils. |
3D physical structure of vegetation and aquatic biomass | Airborne lidar: 0.1 m bare-earth topography; 1–10 m spatial resolution; 1 year repeat observations. Geodetic needs for lidar: Maintain reference frame; more base stations (need base stations every 30 km without L5 frequency or 50 km with L5) in remote areas; overall need more GNSS frequencies (e.g., L5 and receivers need to support this). C-, L-, and P-band SAR: 10 m spatial resolution; daily in high latitudes (for freeze-thaw), 6-day in other regions; not necessarily near-real-time needs. SAR imagery benefits from maintaining the current geodetic infrastructure for orbit determination; water vapor determination from radio occultation is needed for InSAR correction. GNSS: For GNSS-IR stations in diverse ecosystems with good returns; increased number of stations and dense network in regions with water storage and coastlines (erosion, e.g., Alaska); co-location with tide gauges, soil moisture sensors. Geodetic needs for GNSS: Need SNR from GNSS; for GNSS-IR need increased number of stations in diverse ecosystems and along coastlines in northern latitudes; co-location with soil moisture sensors distributed across environmental gradients; GNSS-R can benefit from investigating increasing ways for space-based reflectometry and enhance monitoring GNSS transmit power for reflections. |
| QUESTION E-2. What are the fluxes (of carbon, water, nutrients, and energy) between ecosystems and the atmosphere, the ocean and the solid Earth, and how and why are they changing? | E-2a. Quantify the fluxes of CO2 and CH4 globally at spatial scales of 100 to 500 km and monthly temporal resolution with uncertainty <25% between land ecosystems and atmosphere and between ocean ecosystems and atmosphere. E-2b. Quantify the fluxes from land ecosystems between aquatic ecosystems. E-2c. Assess ecosystem subsidies from solid Earth. |
GPP, respiration, and decomposition and biomass burning Riverine transport of nutrients, organic matter and other constituents to oceans and inland waters Dust inputs, soil erosion, landslides, black carbon |
Airborne lidar: 0.1 cm bare-earth topography; 1–10 m spatial resolution; 1 year repeat observations. Geodetic needs for lidar: Same as E-2a. C-, L-, and P-band SAR: 10 m spatial resolution; daily in high latitudes (for freeze-thaw), 6-day in other regions; not necessarily near-real-time needs. Ka-band Radar Interferometer (SWOT): 250 m spatial resolution supported by ICESat-2, NISAR, and GNSS-IR to increase temporal and spatial coverage for high temporal dynamics (flooding, wetland inundation). Ultimately need 3–10 m spatial resolution and 0.1 m vertical. SAR imagery benefits from maintaining the current geodetic infrastructure for orbit determination; water vapor determination from radio occultation is needed for InSAR correction. Humidity and temperature profiles, and water fluxes from radio occultation can also be leveraged to place constraints on evapotranspiration. Geodetic needs for InSAR: orbits with precision of 20–40 mm across track and 40–70 mm along-track. GNSS: For GNSS-IR stations in diverse ecosystems with good returns; increased number of stations and dense network in regions with water storage and coastlines (erosion, e.g., Alaska); co-location with tide gauges, soil moisture sensors. Geodetic needs for GNSS: Same as E-2a. Gravimetry: Sustained gravimetry measurements (gravimetry 300 km and GNSS-IR every 100 km [or <50 km without GRACE], in addition to 1–10 m bare-earth DEMs) for total water storage. Geodetic needs: Same as E-2a for InSAR and GNSS; need multiple pairs of satellites and/or closely spaced GNSS. |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
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| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| QUESTION E-3. What are the fluxes (of carbon, water, nutrients, and energy) within ecosystems, and how and why are they changing? | E-3a. Quantify the flows of energy, carbon, water, nutrients, etc. sustaining the life cycle of terrestrial and marine ecosystems and partitioning into functional types. E-3b. Understand how ecosystems support higher trophic levels of food webs. |
GPP, respiration, litterfall and decomposition, nonPS vegetation, functional types CO2, CO, CH4, etc. fluxes from biomass burning ET and root zone moisture Aquatic NPP, PhytoC and Chl, NCP, export from the euphotic zone, N2 fixation and calcification, partitioned into functional types Rates of herbivory on terrestrial vegetation Zooplankton population dynamics and secondary production |
Airborne lidar: 0.1 m bare-earth topography; 1-10 m spatial resolution; 1 year repeat observations. Geodetic needs for lidar: Same as E-2a. C-, L-, and P-band SAR: 10 m spatial resolution; daily in high latitudes (for freeze-thaw), 6-day in other regions; not necessarily near-real-time needs. Ka-band radarinterferometer (SWOT): 250 m spatial resolution supported by ICESat-2, NISAR, Sentinel-1 and/or GNSS-IR to increase temporal and spatial coverage for high temporal dynamics (flooding, wetland inundation). Ultimately need 3–10 m spatial resolution and 0.1 m vertical. SAR imagery benefits from maintaining the current geodetic infrastructure for orbit determination; water vapor determination from radio occultation is needed for SAR correction. Humidity and temperature profiles, and water fluxes from radio occultation can also be leveraged to place constraints on ET. Geodetic needs for InSAR: Same as E-2a and GNSS needs. Daily fluxes: For GNSS-IR stations in diverse ecosystems and along gradients with good returns for daily fluxes; increased number of stations and dense network in regions with water storage and coastlines (erosion, e.g., Alaska); co-location with tide gauges, soil moisture sensors. Geodetic needs for GNSS: Same as E-2a. Gravimetry: Similar to E-2a but important to have total water storage of small to mid-sized basins, need gravimetry every 100 km and GNSS-IR 50 km; for the latter needs include a regional network in northern latitudes (e.g., Alaska, which has synergies with solid earth/tectonics); for monitoring water storage fluxes need increased temporal resolution (weekly to every 10 days, not monthly). Geodetic needs: Same as E-2a for SAR and GNSS; need multiple pairs of satellites and/or closely spaced GNSS. |
| QUESTION E-4. How is carbon accounted for through carbon storage, turnover, and accumulated biomass? Have all of the major carbon sinks been quantified and how are they changing in time? | E-4a. Improve assessments of the global inventory of terrestrial C pools and their rate of turnover. | Aboveground carbon density (biomass) | See E-1. |
| Terrestrial GPP, respiration, decomposition and biomass burning | See E-3 above (daily fluxes, GNSS). | ||
| QUESTION S-4. What processes and interactions determine the rates of landscape change? | S-4a. Quantify global, decadal landscape change produced by abrupt events and by continuous reshaping of Earth’s surface from surface processes, tectonics, and societal activity. | Bare-earth topography | Airborne lidar: 0.1 m bare-earth topography; 1 m spatial resolution; 1 year repeat observations. Also need top of canopy: surface roughness at 1 m spatial resolution (this is also useful for imaging spectroscopy for vegetation health). Geodetic needs for lidar: Maintain reference frame; more base stations (need base stations every 30 km without L5 frequency or 50 km with L5) in remote areas; overall need more GNSS frequencies (e.g., L5 and receivers need to support this). |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| Land-surface deformation | L-, C-band SAR: 10 m spatial resolution, 0.1 m vertical; weekly repeat cycles. Geodetic needs for InSAR: 20–40 mm orbit precision; 40–70 mm along-track precision; increased number of radio occultation measurements. Because it is important to develop long-time series, orbit stability and reference frame stability are of similar importance as for measurement of sea surface height from satellite altimetry. |
||
| High spatial resolution time series of changes in optical surface characteristics | See above, land-surface deformation. | ||
| Measurement of rock-, soil-, water-, and ice-mass change | Surface water: L-, P-band SAR: 10 m spatial resolution; daily in high latitudes (for freeze-thaw), 6-day in other regions; not necessarily near-real-time needs. Ka-band radar interferometer (SWOT): 250 m spatial resolution supported by ICESat-2, NISAR, Sentinel-1 and GNSS-IR to increase temporal and spatial coverage for high temporal dynamics (flooding, wetland inundation). Ultimately need 3–10 m spatial resolution and 0.1 m vertical. SAR imagery benefits from maintaining the current geodetic infrastructure for orbit determination; water vapor determination from radio occultation is needed for SAR correction. Humidity and temperature profiles, and water fluxes from radio occultation can also be leveraged to place constraints on evapotranspiration. Geodetic needs for InSAR: Same as E-2a and GNSS needs. GNSS: For GNSS-IR stations in diverse ecosystems with good returns; increased number of stations and dense network in regions with water storage and coastlines (erosion, e.g., Alaska); co-location with tide gauges, soil moisture sensors. Geodetic needs for GNSS: Same as E-2a. Total water storage: Gravimetry: similar to above but important to have total water storage of small to mid-sized basins, need gravimetry every 100 km and GNSS-IR 50 km; for the latter needs include a regional network in northern latitudes (e.g., Alaska, which has synergies with solid earth/tectonics); for monitoring water storage fluxes need increased temporal resolution (weekly to every 10 days, not monthly). Geodetic needs: Same as E-2a for InSAR and GNSS; need multiple pairs of satellites and/or closely spaced GNSS. |
||
| Measurement of rainfall and snowfall rates | See Water Cycle, H-4. For snow: Airborne lidar: 0.1 m bare-earth topography; 1 m spatial resolution; weekly repeat observations for snow depth. Also need top of canopy: surface roughness at 1 m spatial resolution (this is also useful for imaging spectroscopy for vegetation health). Geodetic needs for lidar: Maintain reference frame; more base stations (need base stations every 30 km without L5 frequency or 50 km with L5) in remote areas; overall need more GNSS frequencies (e.g., L5 and receivers need to support this). |
||
| Reflectance for freeze/thaw spatial and temporal distribution |
C-, L-, and P-band SAR; 10 m spatial resolution; benefits from maintaining current geod. infrastructure for orbit determination; water vapor determination with radio occultation (require new observations); daily in high latitudes (for freeze-thaw), 6-day in other regions; not near-real-time needs. Geodetic needs: |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
| Question | Objective | Geophysical Observable | Measurement Parameters and Geodetic Needs |
|---|---|---|---|
| S-4b. Quantify weather events, surface hydrology, and changes in ice/water content of near-surface materials that produce landscape change. | Measurement of rainfall and snowfall rates | See S-4a. | |
| Reflectance for freeze/thaw spatial and temporal distribution | See S-4a. | ||
| Optical characterization of spatial and temporal distribution of freeze/thaw | |||
| Reflectance for snow depth/snow water equivalent | |||
| Soil/root zone moisture content | |||
| S-4c. Quantify ecosystem response to and causes of landscape change. | High spatial resolution time series of distribution of vegetation in VIS/NIR | See E-1, E-2, E-3, E-4, and S-4a. | |
| Observations of canopy structure and carbon inventory | |||
| Bare-earth topography | |||
| Observations of ecosystem status and near-surface material composition |
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
REFERENCES
Abshire, J.B., X. Sun, H. Riris, J.M. Sirota, J.F. McGarry, S. Palm, D. Yi, and P. Liiva. 2005. Geoscience laser altimeter system (GLAS) on the ICESat mission: On-orbit measurement performance. Geophysical Research Letters 32(21):L21S02.
Altamimi, Z., P. Rebischung, L. Métivier, and X. Collilieux. 2016. ITRF2014: A new release of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame modeling nonlinear station motions. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 121(8):6109-6131.
Argus, D.F., F.W. Landerer, D.N. Wiese, H.R. Martens, Y. Fu, J.S. Famiglietti, B.F. Thomas, T.G. Farr, A.W. Moore, and M.M. Watkins. 2017. Sustained water loss in California’s mountain ranges during severe drought from 2012 to 2015 inferred from GPS. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 122(10):559-585.
Foster, J.H., B.A. Brooks, D. Wang, G.S. Carter, and M.A. Merrifield. 2012. Improving tsunami warning using commercial ships. Geophysical Research Letters 39(9):L09603.
McCreight, J.L., E.E. Small, and K.M. Larson. 2014. Snow depth, density, and SWE estimates derived from GPS reflection data: Validation in the western U.S. Water Resources Research 50:6892-6909.
NASEM (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine). 2018. Thriving on Our Changing Planet: A Decadal Strategy for Earth Observation from Space. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Small, E.E., K.M. Larson, C.C. Chew, J. Dong, and T.E. Oshsner. 2016. Validation of GPS-IR soil moisture retrievals: Comparison of different algorithms to remove vegetation effects. Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 9(10):4759-4770.
Xu, X., D.T. Sandwell, E. Tymofyeyeva, A. González-Ortega, and X. Tong. 2017. Tectonic and anthropogenic deformation at the Cerro Prieto geothermal step-over revealed by Sentinel-1A InSAR. Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 55(9):5284-5292.
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
Suggested Citation:"Appendix A: Science and Applications Traceability Matrixes." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Evolving the Geodetic Infrastructure to Meet New Scientific Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25579.
×
