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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020. Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25676.
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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

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Brewer, M.A., K. Fitzpatrick, and R. Avelar. 2015. “Rectangular Rapid Flashing Beacons and Pedestrian Hybrid Beacons: Pedestrian and Driver Behavior Before and After Installation.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2519, pp. 1–9. California Department of Transportation. 1996. California Traffic Manual. 2002 update. California Department of Transportation. 2006. California MUTCD. California Department of Transportation. 2012. California MUTCD. California Department of Transportation. 2018. California MUTCD. 2018 Update Casello, J.M., A. Fraser, A. Mereu, and P. Fard. 2017. “Enhancing Cycling Safety at Signalized Intersections: Analysis of Observed Behavior.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2662, pp. 59–66. Chen, P., C. Pai, R. Jou, W. Saleh, and M. Kuo. 2015. “Exploring motorcycle red-light violation in response to pedestrian green signal countdown device.” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 75, pp. 128–136. Chicago Department of Transportation. 2002. Countdown Pedestrian Signal Study. Final Report, Chicago, Ill. Chrysler, S., K. Fitzpatrick, M. Brewer, and M. Cynecki. 2011. Pedestrian and Bicyclist Traffic Control Device Evaluation Methods. FHWA-HRT-11-035, Federal Highway Administration. Clifford, S., K. Millard, S. Greenshields, and A. Wells. 2018. Low-Level Cycle Signals. On- Street Observations of Early Release and Hold the Left. Project Report PPR856, Transport for London. Cole, B., and B. Brown. 1968. “Specification of Road Traffic Signal Light Intensity,” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Vol. 10, No. 3. CROW. 2007. Design Manual for Bicycle Traffic. Department of Transport. 2016. The Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions. Denver, CO - City and County. (2009). Bicycle Traffic Signal Behavior Study. By Ordonez and Vogelsang, LLC & Jacobs Engineering. Dissanayake, S. and J. J. Lu. 2001. “Traffic Control Device Comprehension: Differences between Domestic and International Drivers in USA.” IATSS Research, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 80- 87. Drakopoulos, A. and R.W. Lyles. 2001. “Use of Multivariate Multiple Response Analysis of Variance Models to Evaluate Driver Comprehension Errors of Flashing Traffic Signal Operations.” Journal of Safety Research, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 85-106. Eccles, K. A., R. Tao, and B.C. Mangum. 2004. “Evaluation of Pedestrian Countdown Signals in Montgomery County, Maryland.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 1878, pp. 36–41. Elekwachi, O. L. 2010. Empirical Investigation of the Effect of Countdown Pedestrian Signals on Driver Behavior and Capacity at Urban Signalized Intersections. Ph.D. dissertation, Morgan State University, Baltimore. 72

FHWA. 2000. Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways. Millennium Edition. FHWA. 2004. Standard Highway Signs. https://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/ser- shs_millennium_eng.htm FHWA. 2009. Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways. https://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/kno_2009r1r2.htm FHWA. 2013. Interim Approval for Optional Use of a Bicycle Signal Face (IA-16). https://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/interim_approval/ia16/ FHWA. 2014. Official Interpretation #9(09)-47 (I) on Clarification of IA-16. https://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/interpretations/9_09_47.htm Fitzpatrick, K., and E.S. Park. 2009. “Safety Effectiveness of HAWK Pedestrian Treatment.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2140, pp. 214–223. Fitzpatrick, K., and M. P. Pratt. 2016. “Road User Behaviors at Pedestrian Hybrid Beacons.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2586, pp. 9–16. Fitzpatrick, K., M. Brewer, and R. Avelar. 2014. “Driver Yielding at Traffic Control Signals, Pedestrian Hybrid Beacons, and Rectangular Rapid-Flashing Beacons in Texas.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2463, pp. 46–54. Fitzpatrick, K., V. Iragavarapu, M.A. Brewer, D. Lord, J. Hudson, R. Avelar, and J. Robertson. 2014. Characteristics of Texas Pedestrian Crashes and Evaluation of Driver Yielding at Pedestrian Treatments, Report No. FHWA/TX-14/0-6702-1, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, TX. Fucoloro, T. 2016. “New 2nd Ave Traffic Signals Clear Up Confusion.” https://www.seattlebikeblog.com/2016/01/19/new-2nd-ave-traffic-signals-clear-up-confusion/ Gunderson, S. 2017. “Bike Signals Made Better by Design.” http://yoursimpletruth.com/blog/better-by-design/. Godavarthy, R.P. and E.R. Russell, Sr. 2010. “Effectiveness of a HAWK Beacon Signal at Mid- Block Pedestrian Crossings in Decreasing Unnecessary Delay to the Drivers.” Presented at 89th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. Goodno, M., N. McNeil, J. Parks, and S. Dock. 2013. “Evaluation of Innovative Bicycle Facilities in Washington, D.C.: Pennsylvania Avenue Median Lanes and 15th Street Cycle Track.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2387, pp. 139–148. Greenshields, S., M. Gupta, and A. Wells. 2018. Cycle Gates. Understanding Bicycle Movements at Traffic Light Controlled Cycle Gates. Project Report PPR857, Transport for London. Hankey, J.M., W.W.Wierwille, W.J. Cannell, C.A. Kieliszewski, A. Medina, T.A. Dingus, and L.M. Cooper. 1999. Identification and evaluation of driver errors: Task C Report, Driver Error Taxonomy Development, Project No. Dtfh-61-97-c-00051, Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Blacksburg, VA. 73

Henery, S. and R. Geyer. 2008. Assessment of Driver Recognition of Flashing Yellow Left-Turn Arrows in Missouri. Final Report. Missouri Department of Transportation. Hiron, B, A. Isler, and F. Tortel. 2014. “Signs and signals for cyclists and pedestrians: comparison of rules and practices in 13 countries.” Transport Research Arena (TRA) 5th Conference: Transport Solutions from Research to Deployment, Institut Francais des Sciences et Technologies des Transports, de l'amacnagement et des Racseaux (IFSTTAR). Horrey, W.J., C.D. Wickens, and K.P Consalus. 2006. “Modeling drivers’ visual attention allocation while interacting with in-vehicle technologies.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 12(2) , pp. 67–78. DOI:10.1037/1076-898X.12.2.67 Huang, H., and C. Zeeger. 2000. “The Effects of Pedestrian Countdown Signals in Lake Buena Vista.” University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC. Hulscher, F. 1975. “Photometric Requirements for Long-Range Road Traffic Light Signals” Journal of the Australian Road Research, 5(7). Hunter-Zaworski, K. and J. Mueller. 2012. Evaluation of Alternative Pedestrian Traffic Control Devices. Report No. FHWA –OR -RD-12-09, Oregon Department of Transportation, Salem, OR. Hurwitz D., C. Monsere, H. Tuss, K. Paulsen, and P. Marnell. 2013. Improved Pedestrian Safety at Signalized Intersections Operating the Flashing Yellow Arrow. Oregon Transportation Research and Education Consortium (OTREC), OTREC-RR-13-02, Portland, OR. Hurwitz, D.S., C.M. Monsere, P. Marnell, and K. Paulsen. 2014. “Three- or Four-Section Displays for Permissive Left Turns? Some Evidence from a Simulator-Based Analysis of Driver Performance.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2463, pp. 1–9. DOI 10.3141/2463-01. Hurwitz, D., H. Jashami, K. Buker, C. Monsere, S. Kothuri, and A. Kading. 2018. Towards Safer Protected/Permitted Right-Turn Phasing for Drivers, Bicyclists and Pedestrians. Final Report, SPR 789, Oregon Department of Transportation. Jashami, H., D.S. Hurwitz, C. Monsere, and S. Kothuri. 2019. “Evaluation of Driver Comprehension and Visual Attention of the Flashing Yellow Arrow Display for Permissive Right Turns.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2673, pp. 397–407. Johnson, M., S. Newstead, J. Charlton, and J. Oxley. 2011. “Riding Through Red Lights: The Rate, Characteristics and Risk Factors of Non-Compliant Urban Commuter Cyclists.” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 43, (1), pp. 323-328. Johnson, M., S. Newstead, J. Charlton, and J. Oxley. 2013. “Why do Cyclists Infringe at Red Lights? An Investigation of Australian Cyclists’ Reasons for Red Light Infringement.” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 50, pp. 840-847. King, G.F. 1981. “Visibility of Circular Traffic-Signal Indications.” Transportation Research Record 811, pp. 7–14. Kitali, A., T. Sando, A. Castro, D. Kobelo, and J. Mwakalonge. 2018. “Using Crash Modification Factors to Apprise the Safety Effects of Pedestrian Countdown Signals for Drivers.” Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems, Vol. 144, No. 5. 74

Kittelson & Associates, Inc., Herbert S. Levinson Transportation Consultants, and DMJM+Harris. 2007. TCRP Report 118: Bus Rapid Transit Practitioner’s Guide. Transportation Research Board. Knodler, M.A. Jr., D.A. Noyce, K.C. Kacir, and C.L. Brehmer. 2005. “Evaluation of Flashing Yellow Arrow in Traffic Signal Displays with Simultaneous Permissive Indications.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 1918, pp. 46–55. Knodler, M.A. Jr., D.A. Noyce, K.C. Kacir, and C.L. Brehmer. 2006a. “Analysis of Driver and Pedestrian Comprehension of Requirements for Permissive Left-Turn Applications.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 1982, pp. 65–75. Knodler, M.A. Jr., D.A. Noyce, K.C. Kacir, and C.L. Brehmer. 2006b.” Potential Application of Flashing Yellow Arrow Permissive Indication in Separated Left-Turn Lanes.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 1973, pp. 10–17. Knodler, M.A. Jr., D.A. Noyce, K.C. Kacir, and C.L. Brehmer. 2007. “An Evaluation of Driver Comprehension of Solid Yellow Indications Resulting from Implementation of Flashing Yellow Arrow”. Presented at the 86th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. Korve, H., J. Farran, and D. Mansel. 1996. TCRP Report 17: Integration of Light Rail Transit into City Streets, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. Kothuri, S., A. Kading, A. Schrope, K. White, E. Smaglik, C. Aquilar, and W. Gil. 2018. Addressing Bicycle-Vehicle Conflicts with Signal Control Strategies. Final Report. National Institute for Transportation and Communities. Kwigizile, V., J-S Oh, R.V. Houten, D. Prieto, R. Boateng, L. Rodriguez, A. Ceifetz, J. Yassin, J. Bagdade, and P. Andridge. 2015. Evaluation of Michigan’s Engineering Improvements for Older Drivers.” Final Report, Michigan Department of Transportation. Lambrianidou, P., S. Basbas, and I. Politis. 2013. “Can pedestrians’ crossing countdown signal timers promote green and safe mobility?” Sustainable Cities Society, Vol. 6, pp. 33–39. Langford, B.C., J. Chen, and C.R. Cherry. 2015. “Risky Riding: Naturalistic Methods Comparing Safety Behavior from Conventional Bicycle Riders and Electric Bike Riders.” Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 82, pp. 220–226. Langham, M., G. Hole, J. Edwards, and C. O’Neil. 2002. “An analysis of “looked but failed to see” accidents involving parked police vehicles.” Ergonomics, Vol. 45, No. 3, pp. 167–185. DOI:10.1080/00140130110115363 Lincoln, O. and J.P. Tremblay. 2014. Pedestrian Hybrid Beacon Crosswalk System (PHB) or High-Intensity Activated Crosswalk (HAWK) Evaluation. Initial Report, Vermont Agency of Transportation, Montpelier, VT. Mahach, K., A.J. Nedzesky, L. Atwater, L. and R. Saunders. 2002. A Comparison of Pedestrian Signal Heads. Proceedings of the ITE Annual Meeting and Exhibit, ITE, Washington, D.C. 75

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 Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals
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Prior to 2013, the use of bicycle-specific signals in the U.S. was limited to a few jurisdictions. However, in recent years, the number of installations has grown rapidly. This research identified more than 500 intersections using bicycle signals in a variety of contexts.

Despite the recent approval and practice, the TRB National Cooperative Highway Research Program's NCHRP Web-Only Document 273: Road User Understanding of Bicycle Signal Faces on Traffic Signals explores the questions that remain regarding road-user understanding of bicycle signals.

The objective of this research was to summarize and synthesize the U.S. experience with bicycle signal installations to identify any remaining gaps in understanding road-user comprehension and compliance with bicycle signals that could be effectively addressed through further research.

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