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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26091.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26091.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26091.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26091.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26091.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26091.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26091.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26091.
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A I R P O R T C O O P E R A T I V E R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 225 2021 Research sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration Subscriber Categories Aviation • Finance • Terminals and Facilities Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenue InterVISTAS Consulting, Inc. San Mateo, CA i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Walker Consultants Indianapolis, IN JLL Chicago, IL Innovat International Mount Pleasant, SC DWU Consulting San Jose, CA

AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM Airports are vital national resources. They serve a key role in trans- portation of people and goods and in regional, national, and interna- tional commerce. They are where the nation’s aviation system connects with other modes of transportation and where federal responsibility for managing and regulating air traffic operations intersects with the role of state and local governments that own and operate most airports. Research is necessary to solve common operating problems, to adapt appropriate new technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into the airport industry. The Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the airport industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it. The need for ACRP was identified in TRB Special Report 272: Airport Research Needs: Cooperative Solutions in 2003, based on a study spon- sored by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). ACRP carries out applied research on problems that are shared by airport operating agen- cies and not being adequately addressed by existing federal research programs. ACRP is modeled after the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) and Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP). ACRP undertakes research and other technical activi- ties in various airport subject areas, including design, construction, legal, maintenance, operations, safety, policy, planning, human resources, and administration. ACRP provides a forum where airport operators can cooperatively address common operational problems. ACRP was authorized in December 2003 as part of the Vision 100— Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. The primary participants in the ACRP are (1) an independent governing board, the ACRP Oversight Committee (AOC), appointed by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Transportation with representation from airport operating agencies, other stakeholders, and relevant industry organizations such as the Airports Council International-North America (ACI-NA), the American Associa- tion of Airport Executives (AAAE), the National Association of State Aviation Officials (NASAO), Airlines for America (A4A), and the Airport Consultants Council (ACC) as vital links to the airport community; (2) TRB as program manager and secretariat for the governing board; and (3) the FAA as program sponsor. In October 2005, the FAA executed a contract with the National Academy of Sciences formally initiating the program. ACRP benefits from the cooperation and participation of airport professionals, air carriers, shippers, state and local government officials, equipment and service suppliers, other airport users, and research organi- zations. Each of these participants has different interests and responsibili- ties, and each is an integral part of this cooperative research effort. Research problem statements for ACRP are solicited periodically but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the responsibility of the AOC to formulate the research program by identifying the highest priority projects and defining funding levels and expected products. Once selected, each ACRP project is assigned to an expert panel appointed by TRB. Panels include experienced practitioners and research specialists; heavy emphasis is placed on including airport professionals, the intended users of the research products. The panels prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the project. The process for developing research problem statements and selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing coop- erative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, ACRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation. Primary emphasis is placed on disseminating ACRP results to the intended users of the research: airport operating agencies, service pro- viders, and academic institutions. ACRP produces a series of research reports for use by airport operators, local agencies, the FAA, and other interested parties; industry associations may arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, webinars, and other activities to ensure that results are implemented by airport industry practitioners. ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 225 Project 03-47 ISSN 2572-3731 (Print) ISSN 2572-374X (Online) ISBN 978-0-309-67375-4 Library of Congress Control Number 2021930184 © 2021 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. COPYRIGHT INFORMATION Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein. Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, NHTSA, or TDC endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP. NOTICE The research report was reviewed by the technical panel and accepted for publication according to procedures established and overseen by the Transportation Research Board and approved by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research and are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors. The Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; and the sponsors of the Airport Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report. Published research reports of the AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM are available from Transportation Research Board Business Office 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 and can be ordered through the Internet by going to https://www.nationalacademies.org and then searching for TRB Printed in the United States of America

The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, non- governmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. John L. Anderson is president. The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president. The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent, objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions. The National Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine. Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org. The Transportation Research Board is one of seven major programs of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The mission of the Transportation Research Board is to provide leadership in transportation improvements and innovation through trusted, timely, impartial, and evidence-based information exchange, research, and advice regarding all modes of transportation. The Board’s varied activities annually engage about 8,000 engineers, scientists, and other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation departments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation. Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.

C O O P E R A T I V E R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M S AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research discussed in this guidebook was performed under ACRP Project 03-47, “Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenue,” by a research team of recognized experts in airport parking and ground transportation planning, management, operations, and finance. InterVISTAS Consulting, Inc. (hereinafter referred to as InterVISTAS), was the primary research consultant. Gavin Duncan, Senior Vice President at InterVISTAS, was the principal investigator, and John Dorsett, Senior Vice President at Walker Consultants, was the deputy principal investigator. The other authors were Peter Mandle, Executive Vice President at InterVISTAS; David Garza, Analyst at Walker Consultants; Aaron Kurtz, Senior Associate at JLL; Jenna Buckner, CEO and Lead Consultant at Innovat International; and Dafang Wu, Associate Director of DWU Consulting. The authors were supported by Nelly Alandou at InterVISTAS; Randy Carwile, Will Rhodin, and Brian McGann at Walker Consultants; and numerous other individuals at the companies comprising the research team. The research team would also like to thank the many airport operators, parking operators, consultants, and vendors who contributed their time, insights, opinions, and data, for which we are very grateful. CRP STAFF FOR ACRP RESEARCH REPORT 225 Christopher J. Hedges, Director, Cooperative Research Programs Lori L. Sundstrom, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs Marci A. Greenberger, Manager, Airport Cooperative Research Program Theresia H. Schatz, Senior Program Officer Tyler Smith, Senior Program Assistant Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications Natalie Barnes, Associate Director of Publications Sreyashi Roy, Editor ACRP PROJECT 03-47 PANEL Field of Policy and Planning Stephen P. Gordon, Oakland International Airport, Oakland, CA (Chair) Adam P. Cohen, University of California, Berkeley, Bakersfield, CA Eric Johnson, Metropolitan Airports Commission, Minneapolis, MN Robert V. Linehart, Jr., Republic Parking System, Chattanooga, TN Daver Malik, Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, Phoenix, AZ Katie Stanciel, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, College Park, GA Lawrence A. MacDonald, FAA Liaison Aneil Patel, Airports Council International–North America Liaison Christine L. Gerencher, TRB Liaison

ACRP Research Report 225: Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenue is a guidebook that identifies near-term and long-term solutions to help airports of all types and sizes repurpose, renovate, or redevelop their parking facilities to address the loss of revenue from airport parking and other ground trans- portation services. The guidebook describes how airports might adapt existing parking and ground transportation facilities to make them suitable for alternative, revenue- generating purposes and identify new potential sources of non-aeronautical revenue to compensate for shifting modal preferences, namely transportation network companies, autonomous vehicles, and other emerging/future technologies. The guidebook addresses operational, facility, and financial impacts related to the shifting consumer preferences and potential solutions. Non-aeronautical revenue is a critical source of income for airports, and parking is one of the largest of these sources. Yet ongoing and emerging shifts in customer ground access behavior, resulting from the growing use of transportation network companies (TNCs) and the eventual adoption of emerging technologies, are posing a significant challenge to the reliance of airports on parking revenue. Some airports have seen reductions in parking revenue, and many are imposing or modifying access fees to recover a portion of the lost revenue. While ACRP is researching the impacts of TNCs on airport revenues and opera- tions (ACRP Research Report 215: Transportation Network Companies (TNCs): Impact to Airport Revenue and Operations—Reference Guide), research was needed to explore in more detail how airports may need to repurpose, renovate, or redevelop airport parking facilities to generate additional nonaeronautical revenue to compensate for the decrease in parking revenue. Research for the guidebook under ACRP Project 03-47 led by InterVISTAS, in asso- ciation with Walker Consultants, JLL, Innovat International, and DWU Consultants, included surveys, interviews, focus groups, and case studies. As part of the research, they identified a series of case studies to investigate examples of converted parking facilities or other repurposed, renovated, or redeveloped parking facilities used to generate revenues or changes in demand. While there was limited documentation available on this topic, the research effort focused on interviews with staff from airports, parking operations, parking developers, equipment manufacturers, and airport planning and parking consultants as well as the development of a method to evaluate alternative commercial vehicle loading configurations within existing parking structures. The research also addressed forecasting F O R E W O R D By Theresia H. Schatz Staff Officer Transportation Research Board

methods for future parking demands and looked at various management models to address best practices for reducing expenses and risks for potential excessive parking capacity. Lastly, the research reviewed various technologies available to offset revenue reductions. The appendices provide an annotated bibliography, a listing of acronyms, and a glossary.

1 Chapter 1 Overview of the Guidebook 1 1.1 Guidebook Purpose 2 1.2 Methodology Used to Prepare the Guidebook 3 1.3 Guidebook Organization 4 1.4 Data Limitations 4 1.5 Ongoing Evolution 5 Chapter 2 Current and Future Risks to Public Parking and Ground Transportation Revenues and Facilities 6 2.1 Historical Impacts 10 2.2 Transportation Network Companies 14 2.3 Subscription-Based Car Rentals 14 2.4 Park for Free/Rent Your Car Businesses 14 2.5 Peer-to-Peer Car Rentals 15 2.6 Off-Airport Parking 16 2.7 Automated Vehicles 20 Chapter 3 Estimating Future Parking Facility Needs 21 3.1 Methodology 21 3.2 Typical Data Used for Parking Demand Forecasts 22 3.3 Assess Existing Conditions 25 3.4 Analyze Recent Trends in Parking and Transportation Network Companies 27 3.5 Estimate Future Propensity to Park 40 3.6 Parking Demand Estimates 40 3.7 Parking Demands Versus Parking Requirements 43 Chapter 4 Adapting Parking Facilities for Other Vehicular Uses 45 4.1 Evaluation Criteria 46 4.2 Loading Configurations 54 4.3 Examples and Lessons Learned 59 Chapter 5 Repurposing Parking Facilities to Non-Vehicle Uses 60 5.1 Prior ACRP Research 61 5.2 Risk Reduction Strategies 68 5.3 Terminal Area Hotels 69 5.4 Future-Proofing New Parking Developments 75 Chapter 6 Airport Parking Management Models 77 6.1 Management Agreement 80 6.2 Lease/Concession Agreement 81 6.3 Fixed-Price Agreement 82 6.4 Private Developer Investment 83 6.5 Valet Parking Contract C O N T E N T S

84 Chapter 7 Innovative Payment Systems and Technologies for Public Parking and Ground Transportation 84 7.1 Innovative Payment Systems and Technologies for Parking 109 7.2 Innovative Rate Setting for Commercial Ground Transportation 111 7.3 Airport Access Fees A-1 Appendix A Annotated Bibliography B-1 Appendix B Acronyms C-1 Appendix C Glossary Note: Photographs, figures, and tables in this report may have been converted from color to grayscale for printing. The electronic version of the report (posted on the web at www.trb.org) retains the color versions.

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Ongoing and emerging shifts in customer ground access behavior, resulting from the growing use of transportation network companies (TNCs) and the eventual adoption of emerging technologies, are posing a significant challenge to the reliance of airports on parking revenue.

The TRB Airport Cooperative Research Program's ACRP Research Report 225: Rethinking Airport Parking Facilities to Protect and Enhance Non-Aeronautical Revenues is a guidance document that identifies near-term and long-term solutions to help airports of all types and sizes repurpose, renovate, or redevelop their parking facilities to address the loss of revenue from airport parking and other ground transportation services.

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