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XXI ACTIVITIES OF THE U S. NATIONAL COMMITTEES AND ITS SUBCOMMITTEES GY 0 lonosphencs
ACTIVITIES OF THE U. S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE AND ITS SUBCOMMITTEES Page A. Planning f o r the U.S. IGY Program 853 B. Organization o f U.S. E f f o r t 856 C. Program and Budget 856 D. Education and Information 871 E. D i r e c t i o n and Coordination 878 870
XXI. ACTIVITIES OF THE U. S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE AND ITS SUBCOMMITTEES A. Planning f o r the U. S. IGY Program 1. Establishment of U. S. National Committee f o r the IGY. Following appointment of the CSAGI i n 1951 by the ICSU Executive Board, the General Secretary of ICSU, i n January 1952, addressed i n v i t a t i o n s t o a l l ICSU adhering n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c organ- i z a t i o n s to set up n a t i o n a l committees f o r the IGY. I n response to t h i s request from ICSU, the National Academy of Sciences, as the U. S. adhering body to ICSU, took steps t o e s t a b l i s h a U. S. National Committee. On behalf of the Academy, W. W. Atwood (then D i r e c t o r of the Academy's O f f i c e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Relations) i n i t i a t e d an i n q u i r y i n t h i s regard on February 13, 1952, a f t e r consultations w i t h many members of the U. S. s c i e n t i f i c community, a p r o v i s i o n a l l i s t of nominees was prepared. On December 9, 1952, a proposed membership l i s t was submitted f o r comments to the Chairman of the U. S. National Committees f o r the lUGG, URSI, lAU, and IGU. On February 10, 1953, l e t t e r s of i n v i t a t i o n were sent by W. W. Rubey, Chairman of the National Research Council, to the selected nominees to serve as members of the U.S. Appendix 1 l i s t s the membership of the U. S. National Committee f o r the IGY. During i t s tenure, the Committee f o r m a l l y held sixteen meetings a l l held i n Washington, D. C, as shown a t Appendix 2. The U. S. National Committee f o r the IGY was responsible f o r the planning and general d i r e c t i o n of the U. S. s c i e n t i f i c program. I n a d d i t i o n , the Committee represented the Academy on the CSAGI both t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l planning and coordination as w e l l as to ensure t h a t the U. S. program f i t t e d i n t o the over- a l l scheme. To f u l f i l l i t s planning f u n c t i o n the National Committee appointed temporary working groups and committees to develop and formulate a s c i e n t i f i c pro- gram and to consider methods f o r financing the U. S. program. Subsequently, as l a t e r described, a d d i t i o n a l assistance was obtained through establishment of the Executive Committee and te c h n i c a l panels. 2. USNC Sub-committees and Working Groups. a. Technical Working Groups. At i t s f i r s t meeting on March 26-27, 1953, the U. S. National Committee appointed several working groups whose task was to prepare t e c h n i c a l programs f o r the IGY i r r e s p e c t i v e of n a t i o n a l sponsorship boundaries. The i n t e n t was to formulate a complete and fe a s i b l e program t o be undertaken on a world- wide basis. L i s t e d below are the members of these working groups and of a sub-group th a t was selected t o i n v e s t i g a t e the l o c a t i o n of s t a t i o n s f o r longitude l i n e s : A n t a r c t i c Expeditions. N. C. Gerson (chairman), S. A. K o r f f . Astronomy. G. M. Clemence (chairman), D. Brouwer, W. A. Heiskanen, W. D. Lambert, W. Markowitz, and D. Rice Atmospheric E l e c t r i c i t y . R. E. Holzer (chairman) Geography. P. A. Siple (chairman) Geomagnetism. E. B. Roberts (chairman), L. H. Adams. Ionosphere. H. G. Booker (chairman), C. T. Elvey, N. C. Gerson, A. H. Shapley, and M. Tuve. Location of Stations fo r Longitude Lines. H. G. Booker, N. C. Gerson, and H. Wexler Meteorology. H. Wexler (chairman), R. D. Fletcher The proposals of the working groups were thoroughly reviewed by the Committee a t i t s second meeting (May 1, 1953) and endorsed unanimously. Following submission of t h e i r r e p o r t s , the working groups were considered to have completed t h e i r task and were fo r m a l l y disbanded. 871
NATIONAL COMMITTEE b. Finance Working Group. A Finance Working Group was established a t the Committee's f i r s t meeting t o explore the question of financing the U. S. program. Members of t h i s Group included- W. W. Atwood, J r . , J. N. Adkins, P. K. Klopsteg, P. A. S i p l e , K. Stephenson, H. Wexler ( a l t e r n a t e , R. N. Culnan) and J, W. Joyce, Chairman. Three possible sources of funds f o r the U. S. program were noted: ( i ) d i r e c t Congressional a p p r o p r i a t i o n , ( l i ) support by U. S. government agencies i n c l u d - ing the Department of Defense, and ( i n ) grants by foundations and other p r i v a t e agencies. Following the Group's r e p o r t , the Committee, a t i t s t h i r d meeting, (November 5-6, 1953), agreed ( i ) to approach the Congress (through the National Science Foundation) f o r the necessary supporting a p p r o p r i a t i o n and ( i i ) t o request the National Science Foundation to assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o b t a i n i n g and adminis- t e r i n g government funds f o r the contemplated research program. c. Regional Committees. At i t s second meeting, May 1, 1953, the Committee appointed r e g i o n a l committees f o r the A n t a r c t i c and the A r c t i c to prepare recommend- ations concerning the scope of the U. S. program i n the polar regions. The rep o r t of the A n t a r c t i c Committee was completed i n October 1953. Having completed i t s task the Committee was disbanded e a r l y i n 1954. The A r c t i c Committee's recommendations comprised the basis f o r the U. S. a r c t i c s c i e n t i f i c program t h a t the U. S. National Committee presented a t the CSAGI meeting i n Rome, 1954. Having completed i t s r e p o r t , the A r c t i c Committee was dissolved November 1953. An E q u a t o r i a l Committee was established m 1955 to consider U. S. a c t i v i t i e s i n the e q u a t o r i a l regions f o r IGY, w i t h p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on the P a c i f i c area. A Continental Committee was established e a r l y i n 1956 to compile a program document of U. S. IGY a c t i v i t i e s i n the Western Hemisphere and t o consider the need f o r coordin- a t i o n of l o g i s t i c s support f o r various programs. These committees completed t h e i r task i n 1956 and disbanded. d. Coordinating Committee. At i t s t h i r d meeting (November 5-6, 1953), the U. S. National Committee established a Coordinating Committee which consisted of ( i ) s c i e n t i f i c reporters ( l i s t e d below) f o r each s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e , and ( i i ) chairmen of the re g i o n a l committees that had been established a t the National Committee's second meeting: H. G. Booker (Ionosphere), C. T. Elvey (Aurora and A i r - glow), E. B. Roberts (Geomagnetism), H. Wexler (Meteorology), G. M. Clemence ( L a t - itudes and Longitudes), P. A. Siple (Glaciology and Climatology), S. A. K o r f f (Cosmic Rays), S. Nicholson (Solar A c t i v i t y ) , E. H. Smith (Oceanography), J. A. Van A l l e n (Rocketry), A, H. Shapley (World Days), H. Odishaw ( P u b l i c a t i o n s ) . The Coordinating Committee was charged w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of formulating a r e a l i s t i c s c i e n t i f i c program f o r the United States and developing budget estimates fo r the U. S. program, a task that was accorded top p r i o r i t y i n view of the urgent need f o r funds w i t h which to i n i t i a t e equipment procurement. During the l a s t two months of 1953, the o f f i c e r s of the U. S. National Committee, i t s s t a f f (which con- s i s t e d of the rec e n t l y appointed Executive D i r e c t o r and h i s secretary) and the Coordinating Committee devoted t h e i r time e x c l u s i v e l y to the formulation of a budget for consideration by the National Science Board a t i t s meeting i n January 1954 and subsequent submission to the Congress. 3. Objectives. At i t s f i r s t meeting, the Committee emphasized the importance o f carry i n g out the IGY program on a world-wide basis. I t was recognized t h a t the f u l l cooperation of other nations was e s s e n t i a l to the successful conduct of the planned i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and the free exchange of data r e s u l t i n g therefrom. Before o u t l i n i n g and considering a possible program f o r the United States, the Committee b r i e f l y re- viewed the a c t i v i t i e s i n the F i r s t and Second Polar Years which had been character- ized by a marked degree of i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation. The a c t i v i t i e s of these pro- grams had stressed the northern polar regions, however, the IGY was expected to incorporate a l l areas of the world. 872
NATIONAL COMMITTEE In view of the c a r e f u l planning t h a t was possible before commencement of the program i n July 1957, the Committee recognized that a unique opportunity was on hand to o b t a in h i g h l y useful new geophysical data and agreed on f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the United States i n the IGY program w i t h two basic o b j e c t i v e s , a.) the establishment of a sound g l o b a l geophysical program based on the assumption that there would be f u l l i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation from a l l nations, and b.) the s t i m u l a t i o n of i n t e r - n a t i o n a l g o o d w i l l . 4. P r i n c i p a l F i e l d s of Study. The p r i n c i p a l f i e l d s of study during the IGY were aurora and airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, g l a c i o l o g y , g r a v i t y , ionospheric physics, longitudes and l a t i t u d e s , meteorology, oceanography, seismology, solar a c t i v i t y , upper atmosphere studies using rockets and s a t e l l i t e v e h i c l e s , and nuclear r a d i a t i o n . The IGY program was to a large extent based on e x i s t i n g geophysical s t a t i o n s and networks. During the planning phase, i t was proposed and subsequently approved to e s t a b l i s h new IGY st a t i o n s i n geographical regions such as the a r c t i c , a n t a r c t i c , e t c . , where there had been l i t t l e or no geophysical a c t i v i t y . This spread was of great value f o r those programs w i t h synoptic aspects. The polar regions included s t a t i o n s both w i t h i n and outside the zones of maximum au r o r a l occurrence. Stations i n a broad b e l t around the earth i n the e q u a t o r i a l and temperate regions permitted continuous observations of the sun and, i n the v i c i n i t y of the geomagnetic equator, observations i n geomagnetism and ionospheric physics. Three major pole-to-pole (and the two meridional l i n e s ) networks w i t h the three r i n g s of coverage i n the a r c t i c , e q u a t o r i a l , and a n t a r c t i c regions c o n s t i t u t e d a kind of coordinate system f o r observing atmospheric c i r c u l a t i o n . 5. C r i t e r i a f o r Selection of Experiments. At the second CSAGI meeting i n Rome (September 30 to October 4, 1954), basic plans were adopted f o r the IGY operations and the f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a established f o r the guidance of n a t i o n a l committees i n the s e l e c t i o n of t h e i r programs. Subsequently, these c r i t e r i a were endorsed by the U. S. National Committee f o r use i n the development of the U. S. program. a. The programs of the IGY should be selected w i t h a view to solving s p e c i f i c planetary problems of the earth. To achieve such solutions i t was recognized t h a t during the IGY the regular s c i e n t i f i c f a c i l i t i e s of the world must be supplemented by a d d i t i o n a l observations s u i t a b l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n space and time, as needed, f o r the s o l u t i o n of selected problems. b. Problems r e q u i r i n g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n during the IGY should be selected according to the f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a : ( i ) Problems r e q u i r i n g concurrent synoptic observations a t many points i n - v o l v i n g cooperative observations by many nations. ( i i ) Problems of branches of geophysical sciences whose solutions w i l l be aided by the a v a i l a b i l i t y of synoptic or other concentrated work during the IGY i n other geophysical sciences. ( l i i ) Observations of a l l major geophysical phenomena i n r e l a t i v e l y i n - accessible regions of the e a r t h t h a t can be occupied during the IGY because of the extraordinary e f f o r t during t h a t i n t e r v a l , i n order to augment our basic knowledge of the earth and of the solar and other influences a c t i n g upon i t . ( i v ) Epochal observations of slowly varying t e r r e s t r i a l phenomena, to e s t a b l i s h basic information f o r subsequent comparison a t l a t e r epochs. c. Where questions of p r i o r i t y a r i s e , i n i t i a l consideration was to be given to programs under subparagraph b ( i ) . 873
NATIONAL COMMITTEE B. Organization of U. S. E f f o r t 1. Organizational Structure. The formulation and development of the U. S, S c i e n t i f i c Program r e s u l t e d from the combined e f f o r t s of s c i e n t i s t s throughout the country working w i t h i n the framework of the U. S. National Committee (aided by the USNC Executive Committee, i t s t e c h n i c a l panels, special committees, and the Academy's IGY s t a f f ) . This s t r u c t u r e evolved from the a c t i v i t i e s of the National Committee which i n i t i a l l y served d i r e c t l y i n the formulation and development of the U. S. pro- gram. As plans developed and i t s p o l i c i e s were established, the National Committee created and turned to the USNC Executive Committee f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and review of the U. S. program. Close and e f f e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s were had w i t h a large number of public and p r i v a t e agencies, i n p a r t i c u l a r the National Science Foundation. The Foundation took an earl y i n t e r e s t i n the proposed venture, providing the support of the s p e c i a l l y funded p o r t i o n of the program. I n the ear l y planning years, Wilson F. Harwood and Frank C. Sheppard, together w i t h t h e i r s t a f f , were p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l . Later, as operations approached and the Foundation established i t s o f f i c e f o r IGY matters. Dr. J. W. Joyce (head of that o f f i c e ) and Paul Kratz along w i t h Nick Dassoulas worked c l o s e l y w i t h the Academy's s t a f f i n ensuing years. 2. Academy's IGY S t a f f . a. Establishment of IGY S t a f f . During the e a r l y part of 1953, i t became evident to the o f f i c e r s and members of the Committee that professional s t a f f assistance was necessary to carry out the d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s i n connection w i t h the execution of the U. S, program. To provide f o r e f f e c t i v e coordination of i t s e f f o r t s as w e l l as e f f i c i e n t operation and successful prosecution of the planned a c t i v i t i e s of the U. S, IGY program, the U. S. National Committee authorized establishment of an IGY s t a f f . A special sub-committee was designated by the National Committee to sel e c t an admin- i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r to head the IGY s t a f f . The sub-committee consisted of A. H. Shapley, L. H. Adams, W. W. Atwood, J r . , J. Kaplan, and K. Stephenson. This group approved the appointment of Hugh Odishaw, who entered on duty December 1, 1953, leaving the post of Assistant to the Di r e c t o r at the National Bureau of Standards. b. Functions of IGY S t a f f . At i t s s i x t h meeting (November 5, 1954), the U. S. National Committee confirmed i t s e a r l i e r views regarding the need f o r a l i n e organ- i z a t i o n to ensure the e f f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g of the U. S. operations i n the IGY program and i n s t r u c t e d the Executive Committee to formulate f o r t h i s purpose a s u i t - able organization which, because i t s functions r e l a t e d p r i m a r i l y to the i n t e r n a l aspects of the U. S. program, was organized under the a u t h o r i t y of the Executive O f f i c e r of the Academy. The Academy's IGY s t a f f was responsible f o r the i n i t i a t i o n of a l l actions to eff e c t u a t e the U. S. program under the p o l i c i e s s p e c i f i e d by the U. S. National Committee or i t s Executive Committee. The s t a f f ' s functions included such tasks as the preparation of budgets f o r a l l o c a t i o n of grants under the several d i s c i p l i n e s of the IGY program f o r approval as appropriate, the review of requests f o r funds, preparing reports f o r the U. S. National Committee, providing s t a f f support to the National Committee, i t s Executive Committee, and the t e c h n i c a l panels, etc. c. Organization of IGY S t a f f . I n the year f o l l o w i n g the i n i t i a l appointment to the IGY s t a f f (December 1953), one prof e s s i o n a l and three s e c r e t a r i e s were appointed to the s t a f f . A d d i t i o n a l appointments were made the f o l l o w i n g year, and by the end of 1955, the s t a f f consisted of seventeen members: nine professionals and e i g h t s e c r e t a r i e s . The f o l l o w i n g year -- 1956 -- saw the largest annual increase i n personnel: 28 new members were appointed to the s t a f f . At i t s peak s t r e n g t h , i n August 1958, the s t a f f numbered 49. Appendix 3 i s a l i s t of the personnel that were appointed to the Academy's IGY s t a f f . Some measure of s t a f f a c t i v i t y might be 874
NATIONAL COMMITTEE obtained by the amount of correspondence t h a t was received and the number of long distance telephone c a l l s that were made by the committee and s t a f f members. During the 1955-1960 period, the s t a f f received 44,942 pieces of m a i l and placed 9,522 long distance telephone c a l l s . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the s t a f f covered four areas, i n t e r n a t i o n a l and n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , s c i e n t i f i c programs, regi o n a l c o o r d i n a t i o n , and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The u n i t s established to carry out these r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n - cluded the f o l l o w i n g ( i ) Executive O f f i c e . This o f f i c e was responsible f o r the preparation of p o l i c y and management recommendations f o r consideration by the U. S. National Committee and i t s Executive Committee, coordination of the U. S. Program n a t i o n a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , i . e . , w i t h CSAGI and other nations p a r t i c i p a t i n g m the IGY and l i a i s o n w i t h the Department of State and other f e d e r a l agencies on i n t e r n a t i o n a l aspects of the U. S. Program; and d i r e c t i o n of s t a f f functions. ( i i ) A d m i n i s t r a t i v e O f f i c e . This o f f i c e was responsible f o r the d i r e c t i o n of the program and r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s , management of the IGY s t a f f , preparation of s t a f f budgets and c o n t r o l of o f f i c e expenditures, s e l e c t i o n of s t a f f personnel, pro- v i s i o n of service f u n c t i o n s , l i a i s o n w i t h the Academy's Business O f f i c e , preparation of budgets f o r the U. S. Program, cognizance of the f i s c a l status of the IGY a p p r o p r i a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g program and p r o j e c t a l l o c a t i o n s , preparation of f i s c a l recommendations f o r approval by the U. S. National Committee and t r a n s m i t t a l t o the National Science Foundation, l i a i s o n w i t h the National Science Foundation and other fe d e r a l agencies on f i s c a l matters. ( i l l ) Regional Operations O f f i c e . This o f f i c e was responsible f o r the d e f i n - i t i o n of l o g i s t i c s and f a c i l i t y requirements of r e g i o n a l program a c t i v i t i e s , e.g., a n t a r c t i c , a r c t i c , c oordination w i t h l o g i s t i c s support groups of the Federal Govern- ment i n f u l f i l l m e n t of these requirements, assistance, w i t h p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r s , i n personnel s e l e c t i o n , screening and o r i e n t a t i o n , coordination and expediting pro- curement and shipment of s c i e n t i f i c instruments and supplies, communications (par- t i c u l a r l y i n the a n t a r c t i c ) , preparation of reports and documents on re g i o n a l plans and operations, ( i v ) S c i e n t i f i c Program O f f i c e . This o f f i c e was responsible f o r assistance to and coordination of Technical Panel a c t i v i t i e s , coordination of approved pr o j e c t s and assistance, as necessary, i n program execution, l i a i s o n w i t h government agencies f o r l o g i s t i c s support and c o n t r i b u t i o n s to p r o j e c t s , preparation of U. S. National Committee program documents and evaluation of p r o j e c t progress reports f o r inform- a t i o n and assessment by the U. S. National Committee, Technical Panels and others. (v) S a t e l l i t e Program O f f i c e . This o f f i c e was responsible f o r providing assistance to the Earth S a t e l l i t e Panel and coordination of i t s a c t i v i t i e s ; co- o r d i n a t i o n of approved p r o j e c t s and assistance, as necessary, i n program execution, l i a i s o n w i t h government agencies f o r l o g i s t i c s support and c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the Earth S a t e l l i t e program, preparation of U. S. National Committee program documents, evaluation of p r o j e c t progress reports f o r information and assessment by the U. S. National Committee, Earth S a t e l l i t e Panel, and others. ( v i ) Data Coordination O f f i c e . This o f f i c e was responsible f o r the planning and d i r e c t i o n of the U. S. World Data Center, comprising eleven subcenters, co- o r d i n a t i o n of U. S. r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange of IGY data w i t h other World Data Centers, planning and coordination of U. S. p a r t i c i p a t i o n m i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange of semi-processed data. ( v i i ) O f f i c e of Information. This o f f i c e was responsible f o r the preparation of i n f o r m a t i o n a l and educational documents; assistance to media and educational 875
NATIONAL COMMITTEE groups; review, coordination and presentation of p r o j e c t proposals m the inform- a t i o n and science education f i e l d s , maintenance of p i c t u r e f i l e s , s l i d e s , r e p r i n t s , b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l data of IGY s c i e n t i s t s and a tec h n i c a l l i b r a r y f o r reference purposes. 3. USNC Executive Committee. a. Establishment of USNC Executive Committee By the end of 1954, the Committee confirmed e a r l i e r views t h a t there was a d e f i n i t e need t o reorganize i t s composition to provide more appropriate r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the operational functions of the U. S. IGY program. The many techni c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems that required decisions, the need to e s t a b l i s h l i a i s o n w i t h government and other p a r t i c i p a t i n g agencies, and to maintain continuous watch on the operation of the U. S. program c a l l e d f o r establishment of a smaller group to handle expeditiously the various topics and problems that up to then were considered by the U. S. National Committee and which now desired to concern i t s e l f w i t h broad p o l i c y and f o r m u l a t i o n of the U. S. IGY program. At I t s s i x t h meeting on November 5, 1954, the U. S. National Committee agreed to es t a b l i s h the USNC Executive Committee co n s i s t i n g of the f o l l o w i n g members: L. V. Berkner, N. C. Gerson, L. M. Gould, J. Kaplan, Hugh Odishaw, F. W. Reichelder- f e r , A. H. Shapley, A. F. Spilhaus, and M. A. Tuve. Subsequently, a d d i t i o n a l appoint- ments were made, the f u l l membership of the USNC Executive Committee i s shown i n Appendix 4. During i t s tenure, the Executive Committee met formally at t h i r t y - n i n e meetings (Appendix 5). The Executive Committee was i n s t r u c t e d to r e f e r to the f u l l Committee f o r review ( i ) the i n t r o d u c t i o n of new major f i e l d s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n not planned i n the CSAGI program nor s p e c i f i e d i n the U. S. IGY program, and ( i i ) adjustments between program a l l o c a t i o n s exceeding 15 per cent of any planned program. b. R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . The Committee was charged w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r ( i ) i n - t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation w i t h CSAGI, a c t i n g through the a u t h o r i t y of the O f f i c e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Relations of the Academy, ( i i ) a l l decisions r e l a t i n g to the character of U. S. p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the IGY program other than those reserved to the f u l l Committee, ( i n ) approving budgets f o r the U. S. IGY program i n each d i s c i p l i n e , w i t h the proviso t h a t a l l o c a t i o n s of funds i n excess of $25,000 would be subject to National Committee r a t i f i c a t i o n before f i n a l approval, a l l other actions i n v o l v i n g U. S. IGY funds were to be reviewed at frequent i n t e r v a l s , ( i v ) approving appoint- ments to the s t a f f and the organization of review panels, and (v) meeting a t frequent i n t e r v a l s . c. Appointment of Technical Panels. As an i n i t i a l step i n c a r r y i n g out i t s d u t i e s , the Executive Committee agreed at i t s f i r s t meeting on November 12, 1954, t o es t a b l i s h t e c h n i c a l review panels f o r the various d i s c i p l i n e s . The functions of the panels were to advise the U. S. National Committee on the program and budget e s t i - mates, advise the Executive Committee on ( i ) major program decisions to be made, ( i i ) the soundness of i n d i v i d u a l proposals and ( i i i ) c oordination and execution of the programs. To avoid possible misunderstandings and embarrassment to the U. S. National Committee and s c i e n t i s t s a c t i v e i n the program, i t was agreed t h a t panel chairmen should not be associated w i t h an i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t would receive appreciable IGY funds. One member of the IGY s t a f f was assigned to be present at a l l meetings of the panels to a s s i s t the members and to coordinate panel actions and requirements. A l l appointments to the panels were subject to review and approval of the U. S, National Committee. Their membership i s included i n the relevant preceding chapters that describe the panel a c t i v i t i e s . 876
NATIONAL COMMITTEE d. Ad Hoc and Special Committees. The Executive Committee also established a number of ad hoc and s p e c i a l committees i n various areas of a c t i v i t y . I n March 1956, an Advisory Group on Geochemistry was appointed to review IGY observations i n v o l v i n g chemical analysis and comparison. This ad hoc group was charged w i t h making recom- mendations on desirable geochemical measurements not then i n the IGY program and to a s s i s t the i n t e r e s t e d panels m developing and c a r r y i n g out programs i n v o l v i n g chemical and radio-chemical measurements. The Executive Committee a n t i c i p a t e d considerable i n t e r e s t m the IGY program on the part of amateur s c i e n t i f i c groups such as a u r o r a l observers, radio amateurs, astronomers, e t c . S t i m u l a t i o n of these i n t e r e s t s was f e l t to be extremely b e n e f i c i a l to the program; and accordingly, the Executive Committee a t i t s t w e l f t h meeting i n January 1956, established an ad hoc group to coordinate t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n . 877
NATIONAL COMMITTEE C. Program and Budget 1. U. S. Program. I n i t i a l l y , the U. S. program provided f o r planned i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n e i g h t major s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s of i n q u i r y : a.) astro-geophysical measurements, b.) meteorology, c.) oceanography and g l a c i o l o g y , d.) ionospheric physics, e.) aurora and airglow, f . ) geomagnetism, g.) cosmic rays and h.) rocket e x p l o r a t i o n of the upper atmosphere. Later, two separate programs -- solar a c t i v i t y and World Days & Communications -- were established to replace astro-geophysical measurements, and the oceanography and gl a c i o l o g y programs were set up separately. Subsequently, the. Earth S a t e l l i t e program was added to the U. S. e f f o r t as w e l l as major new programs i n seismology and g r a v i t y measurements. I n a l l , t h i r t e e n s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s composed the U. S. - IGY program. F i n a l plans provided f o r observations i n a l l these d i s c i p l i n e s to be incorporated i n t o the U. S. program, which was b u i l t around several networks of pre-IGY geophysical s t a t i o n s . These included the upper-air s t a t i o n s of the U. S. Weather Bureau, v e r t i c a l - i n c i d e n c e ionospheric physics s t a t i o n s of the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory of the N a t i o n a l Bureau of Standards, and geomagnetic observatories and t i d e gauge s t a t i o n s of the U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. Several new synoptic networks were established f o r the IGY, many of which remain i n operation to t h i s day, modified according to new discoveries and i n s t r u - mental advances. I n a d d i t i o n t o synoptic network studies, special experiments were inaugurated i n many of the d i s c i p l i n e s , experiments using the techniques of high a l t i t u d e sounding rockets and a r t i f i c i a l e a rth s a t e l l i t e s and deep space probes con- t r i b u t e d s p ecial observations i n many of the d i s c i p l i n e s . A sp e c i a l e f f o r t was made to f i l l i n the pole-to-pole chain of s t a t i o n s a t 70-80°W. Several s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s were established and operated i n A n t a r c t i c a , and U. S. s c i e n t i s t s worked at two s t a t i o n s m the A r c t i c Ocean, one on pack i c e , the other on a large s e c t i o n of tabular i ce Ice Isla n d T-3 (Fletcher's Ice I s l a n d ) . The United States was assigned r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the organization of the World Warning Agency (operated by the National Bureau of Standards) and the A n t a r c t i c Weather Central (operated a t the L i t t l e America s t a t i o n ) . D e t a i l s concerning the i n d i v i d u a l programs are discussed i n the preceding chapters. The actions of the U. S. National Committee and the USNC Executive Committee w i t h respect to the broad programmatic areas of the U. S. e f f o r t and re- la t e d budgetary questions are discussed i n the paragraphs below. 2. Presentation of Program to National Science Foundation. On November 25, 1953, the Chairman of the National Research Council addressed a l e t t e r to the D i r e c t o r of the National Science Foundation f o r m a l l y requesting the Foundation "... to take re- s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r obtaining and administering government funds f o r the contemplated work." The decision to present t h i s program to the Foundation rested l a r g e l y on two considerations. I t was believed t h a t the i n t e n t of the Congress as revealed i n the enabling act e s t a b l i s h i n g the National Science Foundation was b a s i c a l l y two-fold: f i r s t , t h a t the Foundation should assume leadership i n sponsoring basic research, and second, that the Foundation assume leadership i n coordinating broad programs i n v o l v i n g many agencies. 3. National Science Foundation Endorsement of U. S. IGY Program and Budget. The U. S. program and r e l a t e d budget that was developed by the U. S. National'Committee was based on the o v e r a l l program that was approved by CSAGI a t i t s f i r s t meeting i n Brussels, July 1953. Subsequently, the U. S. program was expanded p a r t l y m re- sponse to recommendations, r e s u l t i n g i n t u r n from new s c i e n t i f i c developments, made at the various i n t e r n a t i o n a l meetings t h a t ensued, and p a r t l y as a r e s u l t of the heightened i n t e r e s t m the program on the part of s c i e n t i s t s throughout the world. On December 6, 1953, the basic U. S. program was presented to the National Science Board which subsequently on January 29, 1954 endorsed National Science Foundation p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the program. Immediately t h e r e a f t e r , w i t h the assistance of the 878
NATIONAL COMMITTEE IGY s t a f f , the U. S. National Committee i n i t i a t e d a series of meetings w i t h Found- a t i o n representatives to develop the i n i t i a l budget f o r presentation to the Congress. Subsequent events caused the Committee to seek a d d i t i o n a l funds to support the U. S. program and r e l a t e d d e t a i l s concerning the i n i t i a l and subsequent budgets are i n - cluded i n the f o l l o w i n g paragraphs. 4. IGY Appropriations. The basic f i n a n c i a l support f o r the U. S. IGY program was provided w i t h funds d i r e c t l y appropriated by the Congress. As indic a t e d above, a t the request of the Academy through the U. S. National Committee f o r the IGY, the special appropriations were secured by the National Science Foundation, the govern- ment agency concerned p r i m a r i l y w i t h supporting and f o s t e t i n g basic research i n the United States. T o t a l funds from t h i s source amounted t o $43.5 m i l l i o n which were made a v a i l a b l e through a series of f i v e appropriations approved over a period of f i v e years, beginning w i t h f i s c a l year 1955. 5. Other C o n t r i b u t i o n s . Many agencies and i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e d through t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c s t a f f s to the planning and for m u l a t i o n of the U, S. program. W i t h i n the government, the program was of most immediate i n t e r e s t and concern to the Depart- ments of Commerce and Defense. Substantial l o g i s t i c assistance was provided by the Department of Defense and was of p a r t i c u l a r value w i t h respect to the a n t a r c t i c pro- gram, generous a i d was made a v a i l a b l e also to many pr o j e c t s i n other parts of the U. S. program. Considerable support f o r the U. S. ea r t h s a t e l l i t e program was pro- vided by the Department of Defense. The Department of Commerce through i t s e x i s t i n g networks of weather, geomagnetic, ionospheric, oceanic t i d e , and seismological s t a t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y to the e f f o r t s of the U. S. program. U n i v e r s i t i e s and pr i v a t e foundations, observatories, and l a b o r a t o r i e s had s i m i l a r t e c h n i c a l i n t e r e s t s . The execution of the program involved the s u b s t a n t i a l e f f o r t s of a l l of these groups. The cooperation of p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s was appreciable. I n the formulation of the program, several hundred s c i e n t i s t s from various u n i v e r s i t i e s , foundations, and pr i v a t e research i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e d t h e i r services i n the ea r l y formulation of the program, subsequent d e t a i l e d p r o j e c t planning, t r a i n i n g of s t a f f and execution of the program. Moreover, some p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e d the use of services, equipment and f a c i l i t i e s of almost inestimable value -- inestimable because the f a c i l i t i e s could not otherwise have been established or the equipment put i n t o s a t i s - f a c t o r y operation f o r the proposed program, p a r t i c u l a r l y those of the e x i s t i n g astronomical observatories and oceanographic i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n these and r e l a t e d ways, major p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s played an important r o l e i n supporting the U. S. IGY program. Were i t not f o r t h i s assistance, appreciable increases m d i r e c t government funding would have been required to a t t a i n the desired t e c h n i c a l object- ives of the program. 6. I n i t i a l Budget. The i n i t i a l estimates of the U. S. program were prepared by the U. S. National Committee i n cooperation w i t h several hundred leading American s c i e n t i s t s and presented to the National Science Foundation f o r review by represent- a t i v e s of the Bureau of the Budget. Following t h i s a c t i o n , on June 14, 1954, a $13 m i l l i o n budget was submitted to the Congress as part of a supplemental appro- p r i a t i o n b i l l f o r f i s c a l year 1955. The estimate encompassed work under eight major s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l item f o r t e c h n i c a l d i r e c t i o n . Only $2.5 m i l l i o n were requested a t the time, however, i n response to the Bureau of the Budget's suggestion t h a t only funds be requested t h a t were a c t u a l l y c u r r e n t l y needed. This amount was f o r immediate procurement of s c i e n t i f i c equipment and instruments having a lead time of two years. The e n t i r e program, however, was presented m accordance w i t h Bureau of the Budget's suggestions to permit the Congress to evaluate the FY 1955 requirements i n the context of the planned t o t a l undertaking at th a t time. 879
NATIONAL COMMITTEE Hearings on the FY 55 supplemental budget were i n i t i a t e d on July 1, 1954 by the Independent Offices Subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee, The Senate hearings were held on July 10, 1954 On July 16, the House approved $1.5 m i l l i o n and on August 2 the Senate approved $2.5 m i l l i o n . Following a conference of re- presentatives from the House and Senate, an app r o p r i a t i o n of $2 m i l l i o n was approved on August 16, 1954. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of these funds i s shown below Program Amount Astro-Geophysical Measurements* $ 32,000 Ionospheric Physics 523,000 Aurora and Airglow 143,000 Geomagnetism 15,000 Rocket Experiments of the Upper Atmosphere 1,172,000 Technical D i r e c t i o n 115,000 Total $2.000.000 *Subsequently replaced by Solar A c t i v i t y and World Days Programs 7, F i s c a l Year 1956 Budget. The programs proposed f o r the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year by the various nations were subjected t o c r i t i c a l review at four i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c conferences during the summer of 1954. These were followed by the second CSAGI meeting (September 30-October 4, 1954) at Rome where the i n t e r n a t i o n a l pro- grams i n each of the s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s were welded i n t o a t o t a l IGY program. Approx- imately 200 leading s c i e n t i s t s from the p a r t i c i p a t i n g countries attended t h i s con- ference t o d r a f t d e t a i l e d recommendations on technical a c t i v i t i e s and observing s t a t i o n s , uniform experimental methods, mechanisms f o r d e t a i l e d coordination of observations and data reduction and p u b l i c a t i o n . The r e l a t e d reports of the i n t e r - n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c organizations, the n a t i o n a l r e p o r t s of p a r t i c i p a t i n g c o u n t r i e s , and the discussions of the s c i e n t i s t s contributed to the d e f i n i t i o n of the i n t e r - n a t i o n a l IGY program i n considerable d e t a i l at t h i s meeting. Subs, ent t o the Rome meeting of CSAGI, the USNC Executive Committee w i t h the assistance of the newly appointed Technical Panels and the IGY S t a f f undertook the immediate task of reviewing the f i s c a l needs of the U. S. IGY program i n the l i g h t of decisions taken a t the conference. As a r e s u l t of preliminary reviews, i t was determined t h a t some r e v i s i o n to the U. S, program was i n order. The Technical Panels were i n s t r u c t e d , however, t o continue t h e i r evaluation which r e s u l t e d i n l a t e r suggestions for a d d i t i o n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s . The changes th a t were made i n the l i g h t of the p r e l i m i n a r y reviews by the Panels were r e f l e c t e d i n the budget that was submitted to the Congress i n January 1955 as part of the Independent Of f i c e s Appropriation f o r FY 1956. The amount requested was for $11 m i l l i o n which, w i t h the i n i t i a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n of $2 m i l l i o n , r e f l e c t e d the t o t a l estimated expenditures t h a t the U. S. program was expected to cost at that time. I n a d d i t i o n to providing f o r operational costs of the planned i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n the eight major s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d the U. S. program at t h a t time, each major program included funds f o r data reduction and p u b l i c a t i o n of r e s u l t s obtained from the experiments. Funds were included also f o r t e c h n i c a l d i r e c t i o n of the U. S. program. The need for the amount requested -- $11 m i l l i o n -- was predicated upon the c r i t i c a l timetables facing the United States i n i t s execution of the program. The IGY period of i n v e s t i g a t i o n was set f o r July 1, 1957 through December 31, 1958. By July 1, 1957, a l l s t a t i o n s were expected t o be i n s t a l l e d , t e s t e d , manned and i n 880
NATIONAL COMMITTEE operational s t a t u s . To achieve t h i s o b j e c t i v e , i n s t i t u t i o n s required funds t o order equipment and instruments, time to t e s t procedures, i n s t a l l and t e s t instruments and prepare f o r t h e i r packing and shipping, employ and t r a i n appropriate personnel, etc. This timetable required some advancement i n order t o achieve f u l l operational status by July 1; hence, a period of at least one month was needed of t r i a l measurements and observations on a world-wide basis of the same character as those t o be conducted during the formal 18-month period of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . A l l s t a t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , were expected t o be operational by June 1, 1957. Hearings on the budget were held on February 9, 1955 by the Subcommittee for Independent Of f i c e s of the House of Representatives Committee on Appropriations. Senate hearings were held on May 18, 1955. The amount f i n a l l y approved by the Congress f o r t h i s purpose was $10 m i l l i o n , b r i n g i n g the t o t a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r the IGY at tha t time t o $12 m i l l i o n . The reduction of the request caused temporary e l i m i n a t i o n of the glaciology program. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of the f i s c a l year 1956 app r o p r i a t i o n i s shown below: Program Amount Aurora and Airglow $ 1,516,000 Cosmic Rays 1,172,800 Ionospheric Physics 1,708,600 Meteorology 2,083,000 Solar A c t i v i t y & World Days* 214,900 Geomagnetism 1,409,600 Glaciology 388,000 Oceanography 230,000 Rocketry 660,800 Technical D i r e c t i o n 616.300 Total $10,000,000 *Included i n the program f o r Astro-Geophysical Measurements i n FY 1955 8. F i s c a l Year 1956 Supplemental Budget. During the time t h a t hearings were being held by the Congress on the FY 1955 budget, the Technical Panels were re-evaluating t h e i r respective programs i n the l i g h t of recommendations made by CSAGI at the 1954 Rome meeting, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h respect to the proposed earth s a t e l l i t e program, new developments i n techn i c a l f i e l d s and a proposed expanded e f f o r t i n the A n t a r c t i c . This review concluded t h a t the need f o r an increase i n funds was necessary. De- cis i o n s taken by CSAGI at i t s t h i r d meeting i n Brussels, September 8-14, 1955, by which time the number of p a r t i c i p a t i n g countries numbered f i f t y - n i n e (38 i n 1954 and 29 i n 1953), f u r t h e r supported t h i s p o s i t i o n . Accordingly, preparation of a supplemental budget was authorized by the U. S. National Committee at i t s n i n t h meeting (November 7, 1955) and submitted to the Congress i n January 1956 as part of a Supplemental Appropriation B i l l f o r FY 1956. 9. Congressional Ac t i o n on the FY 56 Supplemental Budget. The FY 1956 supplemental budget amounted to $28 m i l l i o n and included funds f o r programs t h a t o r i g i n a t e d from recommendations, described below, t h a t had been made at the meetings of CSAGI m Rome and Brussels. On March 8, 1956, hearings were held by the House Subcommittee on Appropriations and an ap p r o p r i a t i o n of $26 m i l l i o n was recommended to the House which passed a b i l l f o r t h i s amount. Senate hearings were held on March 21, 1956 and an app r o p r i a t i o n of $28 m i l l i o n was approved. Subsequently, the House-Senate Conference Committee approved an ap p r o p r i a t i o n of $27 m i l l i o n which was passed by both Houses and signed by the President on May 19, 1956. No l i m i t a t i o n was placed on the a p p l i c a t i o n of the $1 m i l l i o n reduction t o the program. Eventually, the 881
NATIONAL COMmTTEE U. S. National Committee's Executive Committee authorized a reduction of $900,000 i n the earth s a t e l l i t e program a l l o c a t i o n ; the remaining $100,000 was obtained by r e - ducing the a l l o c a t i o n s f o r the other d i s c i p l i n e s . T o t a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r the U. S. IGY program now amounted t o $39 m i l l i o n , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of which i s shown below: Program Amount Aurora & Airglow $ 1,920,500 Cosmic Rays * 1,166,000 Geomagnetism 1,563,000 Glaciology 950,000 Gravity 545,000 Ionospheric Physics 3,166,000 Longitudes & Latitudes 17,400 Meteorology 2,789,000 Oceanography 2,038,000 Rocketry 2,659,000 Seismology 944,000 Solar A c t i v i t y 305,000 World Days 125,100 World Data Center 944,000 Earth S a t e l l i t e 18,362,000 Technical D i r e c t i o n 1.506.000 $39,000,000 10. CSAGI Resolutions and Recommendations. The United States, as w e l l as other nations, was influenced by CSAGI's re s o l u t i o n s and recommendations which, i n f a c t , provided the major j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the FY 1956 supplemental budget. These r e - commendations covered the f o l l o w i n g areas and te c h n i c a l f i e l d s f o r which funds were requested: a.) the earth s a t e l l i t e program, b.) major new programs i n seismology and g r a v i t y measurements; c.) a n t a r c t i c a c t i v i t i e s ; d.) a r c t i c a c t i v i t i e s ; e.) equa- t o r i a l a c t i v i t i e s , f . ) other p r o j e c t s or extensions of p r o j e c t s ; g.) World Data Center. a. Earth S a t e l l i t e Program. I n September 1954, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union of Geodesy and Geophysics and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l S c i e n t i f i c Radio Union each addressed r e s o l u t i o n s t o CSAGI urging t h a t considerations be given t o the launching of s c i e n t i f i c a l l y instrumented s a t e l l i t e s t o o r b i t the earth f o r s c i e n t i f i c purposes during the IGY. These r e s o l u t i o n s were approved at the Rome meeting of the CSAGI i n October 1954. The United States National Committee f o r the IGY considered these r e s o l u t i o n s and concluded that the promise of major geophysical advances which could r e s u l t from the successful launching of small earth s a t e l l i t e s was so great t h a t a serious study of the matter should be undertaken immediately. Accordingly, a special committee was established c o n s i s t i n g of the Technical Panel on Rocketry and a d d i t i o n a l con- s u l t a n t s t o ( i ) consider the f e a s i b i l i t y of such a program, ( l i ) recommend the s c i e n t i f i c experiments which should be performed; and ( l i i ) develop an estimate of the cost. Following a favorable r e p o r t by t h i s special committee, the U. S. National Committee agreed t o Include an Earth S a t e l l i t e program i n the United States plans f o r the IGY. On March 14, 1955, the Chairman of the U. S. National Committee formally submitted to the President of the Acadeiny and the D i r e c t o r of the National Science Foundation a proposal f o r t h i s purpose. The President of the United States announced his support of t h i s program on July 29, 1955, and simultaneously the Chair- man of the U. S. National Committee formally n o t i f i e d the President of CSAGI tha t the United States program of p a r t i c i p a t i o n included plans f o r the launching of small s a t e l l i t e s during the IGY. 882
NATIONAL COMMITTEE The l a r g e s t s i n g l e category i n the FY 1956 IGY supplemental budget, the e s t i - mates f o r the U. S, Earth S a t e l l i t e Program, was developed a f t e r discussions w i t h the Department of Defense concerning i t s o b l i g a t i o n s , which included the i n i t i a l development and co n s t r u c t i o n costs f o r the launching and propulsion vehicles as w e l l as the costs of the launch f a c i l i t i e s . The U. S. National Committee budget included funds f o r f i n a n c i n g the cost of the s c i e n t i f i c experiments and t r a c k i n g the s a t e l l i t e s which included both radio and o p t i c a l methods. I n a d d i t i o n , the budget provided f o r funds t o cover the cost of developing the s a t e l l i t e v e h i c l e . D i s t r i - b u t i o n of the funds f o r t h i s program as included i n the budget was as fol l o w s : Launching-propulsion vehicles $6,184,000 S a t e l l i t e instrumentation 1,410,000 Radio t r a c k i n g and telemetering 7,336,000 Opt i c a l t r a c k i n g 2,998,000 Or b i t computations & data 1,202,000 S c i e n t i f i c coordination 132.000 $19.262.000 I n December 1956, at a j o i n t meeting of the Technical Panel f o r the Earth S a t e l l i t e program and the U. S. National Committee, the progress of the program was reviewed. The Committee recommended to the government that the e x i s t i n g USNC-IGY s a t e l l i t e program be considered as part of a continuing n a t i o n a l research e f f o r t u t i l i z i n g earth s a t e l l i t e s and tha t a continuing program comprising approximately 30 instrumented s a t e l l i t e s be launched over a f i v e year period f o l l o w i n g the USNC-IGY program. I t f u r t h e r recommended th a t the program be c a r r i e d out i n stages so t h a t advances w i t h respect t o improved load-carrying capacity and o r b i t s could be introduced. b. Seismology and Gravity Measurements. The establishment of st a t i o n s i n remote regions ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the a r c t i c , a n t a r c t i c , and equ a t o r i a l P a c i f i c ) pro- vided an unusual opportunity t o conduct experiments i n seismology and g r a v i t y . The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union of Geodesy and Geophysics recognized the importance of these f i e l d s and the existence of remote s t a t i o n s , and urged CSAGI t o include such a c t i v i t i e s i n the IGY program. At i t s Rome meeting i n 1954, CSAGI o f f i c i a l l y r e - commended th a t a l l nations add these a c t i v i t i e s t o e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l programs and stressed the importance of reaching o r d i n a r i l y inaccessible areas t o make basic observations i n these two d i s c i p l i n e s . Because i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o the a d d i t i o n of programs i n seismology and g r a v i t y were adopted a f t e r the o r i g i n a l program o u t l i n e of CSAGI, i t was not possible t o include observations i n these f i e l d s i n the i n i t i a l U. S. program. However, i t proved possible f o r the U. S. National Committee to mount a small but s t r a t e g i c program i n seismology and g r a v i t y , which added s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o the global geophysical observations i n t h i s f i e l d . c. A n t a r c t i c Regions. I n i t i a l l y , the U. S. program c a l l e d f o r occupation of one p r i n c i p a l s t a t i o n and three sub-stations i n the a n t a r c t i c . At i t s s i x t h meeting on November 5» 1954, the National Committee reviewed the a n t a r c t i c recommendations that had been approved by CSAGI at i t s 1954 Rome meeting. The very f a c t that 11 nations planned s t a t i o n s on the a n t a r c t i c continent (as w e l l as some other s t a t i o n s i n a n t a r c t i c and sub-antarctic regions) opened up the unique p o s s i b i l i t y that a thorough study of a n t a r c t i c geophysics was w i t h i n reach, provided that the p r i n c i p a l gaps were f i l l e d . Two of these gaps were i n the Weddell Sea area and on the Knox Coast. A Knox Coast s t a t i o n would bridge the gap between the French s t a t i o n s at Point Geologie and the A u s t r a l i a n s t a t i o n at Mawson, the Weddell Sea s t a t i o n would bridge the s t r e t c h between the Mawson s t a t i o n and the Argentinian and B r i t i s h s t a t i o n s on the Palmer Peninsula. With these c r i t i c a l gaps f i l l e d , f o r the f i r s t time i n h i s t o r y , c o n t i n e n t a l a n t a r c t i c coverage of meteorology, ionospheric 883
NATIONAL COMMITTEE physics, a u r o r a l physics, geomagnetism, gl a c i o l o g y , and seismology would be f e a s i b l e . Accordingly, CSAGI c a l l e d upon the nations of the world t o consider the e s t a b l i s h - ment of s t a t i o n s a t these s i t e s . I n analyzing the recommendation of CSAGI i n terms of the U. S. program, the U. S. National Committee concluded that from a s c i e n t i f i c point of view there was no question as to the value to t h i s country of expanding the U. S. program t o include research at these l o c a t i o n s . The Committee f e l t compelled, t h e r e f o r e , t o recommend the establishment of two a d d i t i o n a l U. S. a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s , one t o be located at Vahsel Bay i n the Weddell Sea, the second on the Knox Coast; i n ad d i t i o n a cooperative s t a t i o n w i t h New Zealand at Cape Adare was proposed. I n t o t a l , s i x major s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s were established i n the a n t a r c t i c by the United States. The 1954 Rome meeting of CSAGI also considered the scope of geophysical a c t i v i t i e s at a l l s t a t i o n s i n A n t a r c t i c a and recommended that major e f f o r t s i n each f i e l d of geophysics be undertaken by each nation at i t s a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s . This c a l l e d f o r some added work by the United States at i t s three previously planned s t a t i o n s , as w e l l as at the proposed new s t a t i o n s . Emphasis was also placed on the a d d i t i o n of the two new programs i n seismology and i n g r a v i t y measurements. That p o r t i o n of these two programs which most s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d the a n t a r c t i c r e l a t e d to the cross-continental traverses during which the thickness of the ice was to be measured by seismic soundings to provide the basis f o r an accurate map of the continent. Further progress was made at the t h i r d CSAGI meeting i n 1955 i n Brussels regard- ing plans f o r completing the s c i e n t i f i c coverage of A n t a r c t i c a , and strong approval was given t o the expanded U. S. program i n t h i s area. A "Weather Ce n t r a l " on the continent f o r synoptic processing of data from a l l other a n t a r c t i c meteorological s t a t i o n s and compiling of d a i l y weather maps and forecasts was recommended by CSAGI as an invaluable adjunct t o a n t a r c t i c operations. The U, S. National Committee con- sidered a U. S. operated Weather Central of great i n t r i n s i c and p r a c t i c a l value t o t h i s country and, consequently, included i n i t s program a plan f o r t h i s f u n c t i o n . I n d o c t r i n a t i o n courses f o r s c i e n t i s t s and support personnel selected f o r assign- ments i n the a n t a r c t i c were established and formally approved by the U. S. National Committee at i t s meeting on November 7, 1955. I n a d d i t i o n , the Committee decided t o consolidate a l l U. S. a n t a r c t i c s c i e n t i f i c programs under the supervision of a Chief S c i e n t i s t , and subsequently appointed Dr. Harry Wexler of the U. S. Weather Bureau t h i s p o s i t i o n . E a r l i e r , i n A p r i l 1955, the U. S. Executive Committee empowered a group c o n s i s t i n g of the Chairmen of the Executive Committee and A n t a r c t i c Committee, together w i t h L. V. Berkner, J. W. Joyce, Hugh Odishaw and Linc o l n Washburn t o explore the need f o r s o l i d i f y i n g the command s t r u c t u r e of the proposed a n t a r c t i c expedition. A f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h i n the Academy and w i t h representatives of the National Science Foundation, the group concluded the necessary actions needed t o develop a s u i t a b l e command s t r u c t u r e f o r the a n t a r c t i c expedition. The Executive Committee also approved the recommendations of the A n t a r c t i c Committee f o r compilation of an a n t a r c t i c map. Subsequently, the American Geo- graphical Society produced two h i s t o r i c a l maps, one from 1920-1940 and the other from 1940-1956 (See Chapter XX), Even p r i o r t o the o f f i c i a l beginning of the IGY, the value of the a n t a r c t i c program was c l e a r l y evident. At i t s eleventh meeting on December 4-6, 1956, the National Committee concluded t h a t an a d d i t i o n a l year of observations i n the a n t a r c t i c would y i e l d appreciable data of great value and requested i t s consideration by CSAGI, Several of the U. S. National Committee's recommendations f o r a l i m i t e d research program i n the a n t a r c t i c a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n of the IGY were accepted by ICSU and an I n t e r n a t i o n a l committee f o r t h i s purpose was established w i t h one representative from each country involved. I n the meantime, the USNC Executive Committee was 884
NATIONAL COMMITTEE exploring the p o s s i b i l i t y of an extension of IGY a c t i v i t i e s i n A n t a r c t i c a and at i t s meeting on October 30, 1957, approved the submission of appropriate recommendations t o the government on t h i s matter. At the suggestion of the U. S. IGY Executive Committee, the Governing Board of the Academy endorsed the establishment of an An t a r c t i c Committee t o i n v e s t i g a t e the problem of l o g i s t i c support f o r such a program. Following l a t e r reviews by the Executive Committee of the proposed f u t u r e a n t a r c t i c research e f f o r t s , generated by i t s previous actions i n t h i s regard, the Committee, at i t s meeting on January 8, 1958, authorized i t s Executive D i r e c t o r t o transmit a r e s o l u t i o n t o the President of the Academy and t o the D i r e c t o r of the National Science Foundation, recommending the undertaking of an adequate and balanced ant- a r c t i c program which would r e f l e c t f u l l y the i n t e r e s t s of U. S. s c i e n t i s t s . d. A r c t i c Regions. I n the F i r s t and Second Polar Years emphasis had been placed on work i n the high northern l a t i t u d e s . Networks i n the A r c t i c were discussed at Brussels i n 1955 where the d e t a i l e d programs of a l l countries bordering on the A r c t i c Ocean were a v a i l a b l e f o r the f i r s t time. These included the obviously important extension of auroral measurements inside the auroral zone and also geo- magnetic observations i n the area of t h e o r e t i c a l l y deduced intense e l e c t r i c current sheets i n the ionosphere. I n g l aciology and oceanography, more comprehensive surveys of the a r c t i c i c e and snow cover had long been required f o r epochal and radiation-balance studies, w i t h i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r world weather p r e d i c t i o n s . The vo i d i n meteorological obser- vations from the A r c t i c Ocean Basin area c o n s t i t u t e d a serious deficiency i n the U. S. a r c t i c meteorological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s so important t o increasing U. S. a c t i v i t i e s i n t h i s r e gion, and to the c o n t i n e n t a l United States i t s e l f , ( A r c t i c sea weather i s sometimes the source o f , and at other times exerts major influences on, large scale weather phenomena, at lower l a t i t u d e s ) . To take advantage of the o p p o r t u n i t i e s developed at Brussels m the i n c r e a s i n g l y important a r c t i c area, the U. S. National Committee f o r the IGY developed plans f o r two d r i f t i n g s t a t i o n s on the a r c t i c pack i c e . S a t i s f a c t o r y arrangements were concluded w i t h the United States A i r Force regarding l o g i s t i c support f o r the establishment and operation of the ice f l o e s t a t i o n s , which were occupied f o r a period of two years during the IGY. I n February 1958, a p o t e n t i a l l y detrimental e f f e c t to the U. S. program was averted a f t e r plans were withdrawn t o close the camp, prematurely, at Ice Floe Station Alpha. e. Equatorial Regions. Major emphasis was placed by the CSAGI at i t s 1954 Rome meeting, and r e i t e r a t e d at i t s meeting i n Brussels i n 1955, on the need f o r net- works of IGY s t a t i o n s i n regions o r d i n a r i l y inaccessible or remote; p a r a l l e l emphasis was placed upon the opportunity afforded by planned s t a t i o n s i n remote areas to make studies i n other f i e l d s of geophysics a t l i t t l e a d d i t i o n a l cost. The a r c t i c and a n t a r c t i c were examples of such regions but so too were the islands m the e q u a t o r i a l regions and the vast southern stretches of the A t l a n t i c and P a c i f i c Oceans. The CSAGI meetings recognized these f a c t s and urged a l l nations t o expand and i n t e n s i f y t h e i r programs i n these geophysical f i e l d s . P a r t i c u l a r emphasis at Rome was placed upon the need f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g about f o r t y a d d i t i o n a l s t a t i o n s around the world i n the e q u a t o r i a l regions, many of which f e l l w i t h i n the U. S. sphere of i n t e r e s t or possession. The Brussels meeting f u r t h e r emphasized the expanding i n t e r e s t i n the oceanography program and revealed the f a c t that the United States program should be augmented t o insure the synoptic coverage o f f e r e d by the programs of other nations. CSAGI p a r t i c u l a r l y urged the f i r i n g of rockets i n the Western P a c i f i c , where very few high a l t i t u d e studies previously had been possible. Accordingly, the U. S. National Committee re-examined i t s programs i n oceanography, r o c k e t r y , meteorology and ionospheric physics and responded w i t h a small rocket program on Guam. Programs m seismology and g r a v i t y measurements were also included. Measurements were planned p r i m a r i l y t o take advantage of vessels t h a t were expected t o be operating i n these regions. 885
NATIONAL COMMITTEE f . Other Technical Programs. The Rome (1954) and Brussels (1955) meetings of the CSAGI noted c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s w i t h i n major f i e l d s t h a t were e i t h e r new or required extension. These meetings stressed the major advantages which were assured by incremental e f f o r t s of value f a r exceeding t h e i r cost, and s p e c i f i c r e s o l u t i o n s and recommendations were passed e s t a b l i s h i n g these pr o j e c t s as part of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l IGY e f f o r t . The U. S. National Committee responded to some of these r e s o l u t i o n s w i t h program augmentations where there was appropriate U. S. i n t e r e s t . I n meteorology, p r o v i s i o n was made f o r large balloons which would a t t a i n a l t i t u d e s up t o 100,000 feet and permit f u l l e r e x p l o r a t i o n of the j e t stream phenomenon now known t o be so important to weather p r e d i c t i o n s and research. Added work was planned i n ionospheric physics -- p a r t i c u l a r l y t o i n v e s t i g a t e the newly discovered "atmospheric w h i s t l e r s , " and to i n v e s t i g a t e s c a t t e r i n g of ra d i o waves m equatorial regions. A program t o examine ocean current c i r c u l a t i o n s was made possible by advances i n radio-chemistry techniques. Such p r o j e c t s represented small additions to the United States program but were of major value f o r the amount of a d d i t i o n a l e f f o r t and cost involved. g. World Data Center-A (WDC-A). The importance of e s t a b l i s h i n g one or more r e p o s i t o r i e s f o r the world-wide data and source records derived from the IGY program became increasingly apparent during 1954 and 1955, and thorough discussions were held on t h i s question both domestically and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . At i t s meeting on A p r i l 8, 1955, the U, S. IGY Executive Committee formally considered the matter of data i n t e r - change f o r the f i r s t time and i n s t r u c t e d the s t a f f t o compile f o r discussion i n t e r - n a t i o n a l l y a l i s t of the types of IGY data that should be exchanged. This subject was discussed repeatedly by s c i e n t i s t s at the i n t e r n a t i o n a l meetings of various geo- physical unions, and i n p a r t i c u l a r during the Brussels meeting of CSAGI, September 8-14, 1955. At t h i s meeting s p e c i f i c consideration of t h i s need was under- taken, culminating i n an o f f i c i a l r e s o l u t i o n by the plenary assembly that urged the establishment of world data centers. During the discussion which ensued, i t became apparent that three centers should be established. Accordingly, CSAGI authorized "... the establishment of at least three IGY World Data Centers, of which one w i l l consist of a number of p a r t s . Each Center w i l l be i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n the sense th a t I t w i l l be at the service of a l l countries and s c i e n t i f i c bodies." CSAGI designated the i n d i v i d u a l WDCs from among o f f e r s of various i n s t i t u t i o n s and IGY n a t i o n a l committees which, by so o f f e r i n g , agreed t o support the p a r t i c u l a r WDC a c t i v i t y con- s i s t e n t w i t h the p r i n c i p l e s established by CSAGI. I n response t o o f f e r s by the USA and USSR to e s t a b l i s h centers f o r a l l IGY d i s c i p l i n e s , i t was decided t o e s t a b l i s h WDC-A i n the United States and WDC-B i n the USSR; a t h i r d center, WDC-C, comprises a number of d i s c i p l i n e centers i n various nations. ( i ) Designation of WDC-A Subcenters. During the remainder of 1955 and through 1956, both the U. S. National Committee and i t s Executive Committee con- sidered plans f o r the establishment of WDC-A. At three scheduled meetings of the Executive Committee i n 1956 t h i s subject was discussed. Budget estimates were developed and a Technical Panel on Data Centers, Analysis and Publications was appointed w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s to prepare a report on the needs and plans of the pro- posed data center, i n c l u d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t might accept designation as primary archive centers. At i t s meetings on December 4 - 6 , 1956, the U. S, National Committee considered the recommendations of the Technical Panel on Data Centers, Analysis and Publ i c a t i o n s . A f t e r making several m o d i f i c a t i o n s , the Committee unanimously approved the establishment of primary archives as branches of the U. S. IGY World Data Center to disseminate the s c i e n t i f i c data c o l l e c t e d f o r each of the d i s c i p l i n e s . The U. S. National Committee agreed that IGY World Data Center-A should be subdivided i n the United States according t o d i s c i p l i n e i n several i n s t i t u t i o n s which had a h i s t o r y of i n t e r e s t and competence m the appropriate d i s c i p l i n e s or d i s c i p l i n e . Subsequently, data centers f o r t h i r t e e n CSAGI d i s c i p l i n e s were established at eleven i n s t i t u t i o n s i n the United States, i n c l u d i n g the Rockets and S a t e l l i t e s Subcenter at the Academy. The concept of a Data Coordination O f f i c e established w i t h m the Academy was also approved by the USNC Executive Committee. (See Chapter XVII f o r f u r t h e r information concerning the operation of World Data Center-A.) 886
NATIONAL COMMITTEE ( i i ) Timetable f o r Flow of Data. At i t s meeting on January 14, 1957, the USNC Executive Committee considered the d e t a i l e d planning f o r the Subcenters and agreed t h a t support f o r t h e i r operations should exclude funds f o r data analysis which, i t was f e l t , should be developed separately. Plans f o r the establishment of the Subcenters were developed on the premise t h a t i n i t i a l l y only a small amount of data would flow t o the centers before the beginning of 1958 and subsequently reach a high, r e l a t i v e l y stable flow throughout the IGY, gradually f a l l i n g o f f at the end of the program. Accordingly, the timetable f o r organizing the archives was based on the period of July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1959. The Committee recognized that support might be required by the Sqbcenters i n t h e i r post-IGY r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . ( l i i ) P u b l i c a t i o n of Data. On May 7, 1958 at i t s 30th meeting, at which time Hugh Odishaw was appointed D i r e c t o r of World Data Center-A, the Executive Committee considered the Technical Panels' recommendations f o r p r o t e c t i o n of the i n v e s t i g a t o r from premature p u b l i c i t y of h i s work and agreed that World Data Center-A, when pro- v i d i n g data to i n q u i r e r s , should request them to give c r e d i t t o the i n s t i t u t i o n or s c i e n t i s t o r i g i n a t i n g the data. This p o s i t i o n was f e l t t o be consistent w i t h the s p i r i t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation t h a t was the essence of the IGY. I t was suggested that as a matter of courtesy, a copy of the a r t i c l e t o be published should be sent t o the o r i g i n a l i n v e s t i g a t o r . This p o s i t i o n made i t clear t o Data Centers B and C tha t f u l l c r e d i t should be given t o the s c i e n t i s t s o r i g i n a t i n g the data. 11. F i s c a l Year 1958 Supplemental Budget. Following a series of meetings of the Earth S a t e l l i t e Panel representatives and a f t e r consultations w i t h the National Science Foundation and Bureau of the Budget, a supplemental budget of $2.1 m i l l i o n was submitted to the Congress t o cover added costs i n the earth s a t e l l i t e program. Hearings on t h i s budget were held before the House Appropriations Committee on January 23 and 24, 1958. Subsequently, both Houses approved $2 m i l l i o n , the appr o p r i a t i o n b i l l was signed by the President on March 31, 1958 b r i n g i n g t o $41 m i l l i o n the t o t a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r the U. S. IGY program. 12. F i s c a l Year 1959 Supplemental Budget. At i t s twenty-sixth meeting on January 8, 1958, the U. S. National Committee's Executive Committee^authorized sub- mission of a $7,000,000 budget t o the National Science Foundation. This amount included the a d d i t i o n a l funds f o r the earth s a t e l l i t e program which 'was submitted i n a separate budget t o the Congress, as noted above. The di f f e r e n c e was then subjected to review i n terms of program needs, and i n June 1958, a supplemental budget of $2,950,000 was submitted to the Congress. The amount requested covered the f o l l o w - ing areas: observational program, $350,000; World Data Center-A (USA), $165,000, data reduction and p u b l i c a t i o n , $280,000; i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y research, $2,025,000; and technical d i r e c t i o n , $130,000. A d d i t i o n a l support was needed f o r observations and measurements i n the polar regions, because of losses and damages t o equipment, increased costs from delays caused by severe weather co n d i t i o n s , and unanticipated salary increases f o r c i v i l service employees. More funds were needed also f o r adequate reduction of the large volume of data being c o l l e c t e d and f o r the data centers, whose support had been r e - duced m the o r i g i n a l estimate of the FY 1956 supplemental budget. I n a d d i t i o n , a proposed $2 m i l l i o n program was envisioned f o r the special i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y research program. 13. Special IGY I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Research. During the i n i t i a l period of the observational phase of the IGY, early r e s u l t s made i t clear that r a p i d analysis of data might prove b e n e f i c i a l m guiding the course of the continuing observational programs and disclose unexpected r e l a t i o n s h i p s that could be incorporated i n r e l a t e d experiments p r i o r to t h e i r completion. This conclusion confirmed e a r l i e r views of the USNC Executive Committee which at i t s 20th meeting (February 1957) had considered the establishment of a special i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y research program. On A p r i l 22,1957 887
NATIONAL COMMITTEE at i t s 22nd meeting, the Committee i n v i t e d the Technical Panels t o submit proposals f o r i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y research studies. At the outset, the Committee f e l t t h a t these studies could be undertaken w i t h i n the planned programs f o r data reduction. Later, a broader approach t o t h i s f i e l d by a n a l y t i c a l l y and t h e o r e t i c a l l y minded s c i e n t i s t s was suggested, and at i t s meeting on January 8, 1958, the Executive Committee approved the appointment of an I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Research Committee. This committee was formally established m October 1958 and included the f o l l o w i n g members: M. M, Shapiro (Chairman), Bernhard Haurwitz, Frank Press and E, H, Vestine w i t h A. H. Shapley, M. A. Tuve and Harry Wexler as e x - o f f i c i o . Support f o r t h i s program was provided by funds made a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s purpose from the special Congressional appropriations and the Ford Foundation. A Committee on Special Research Grants was established by the US IGY Executive Committee to review proposals f o r support from Ford Foundation funds which, because of t h e i r e a r l i e r a v a i l a b i l i t y , made possible the prompt funding of promising i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y p r o j e c t s considered by the Committee t o be essent i a l i f advantage were t o be gained of the IGY data. This Committee consisted of: A. H. Shapley (Chairman); Joseph Kaplan; Hugh Odishaw; F, W, Reichelderfer and M. A, Tuve. Several p r o j e c t s were funded from the Ford Foundation funds before Congress approved the FY 1959 supple- mental budget which included an a l l o c a t i o n f o r the special i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y research program. Thereafter, the Committee on Special Research Grants sought t o channel the Ford research funds i n t o promising research areas where the objectives were less w e l l defined and the p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r was possessed of s u f f i c i e n t r e p u t a t i o n to meri t f i n a n c i a l assistance. Under t h i s plan, the Committee succeeded i n b r i n g i n g to the United States several h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d and dist i n g u i s h e d s c i e n t i s t s from abroad to work at U, S. i n s t i t u t i o n s on the analysis of IGY data. Thus, t h i s program not only cont r i b u t e d to the output of the IGY but enhanced cooperation between s c i e n t i s t s i n t h i s country and t h e i r colleagues abroad. A f u l l account i s included i n Chapters XVI and X V I I I of the pr o j e c t s t h a t were funded from both of these sources. 14. Congressional Action on the FY 1959 Supplemental Budget. An amount of $2,5 m i l l i o n was approved by the Congress which d i d not i n d i c a t e the areas where reductions should be e f f e c t e d . Subsequently, an amount of $175,000 was deleted from the observational program where, due t o savings t h a t had been made m the on-gomg program, i t was possible t o absorb part of the reduction; the i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y pro- gram was reduced by $275,000 leaving an amount of $1,750,000 a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s new e f f o r t . " The t o t a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r the U, S. IGY program now amounted to $43,5 m i l l i o n ; d i s t r i b u t i o n i s shown below: Program Amount Aurora and Airglow $ 1,835,000 Cosmic Rays 1,155,000 Geomagnetism 1,641,500 Glaciology 1,029,500 Gravity 525,000 Ionospheric Physics 3,105,500 Longitudes and Latitudes 16,500 Meteorology 2,361,000 Oceanography 2,015,000 Rocketry 2,633,500 Seismology 926,000 Solar A c t i v i t y 305,500 World Days 120,000 I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Research 1,750,000 Earth S a t e l l i t e 20,362,000 World Data Center 1,109,000 General S c i e n t i f i c Support 974,000 Technical D i r e c t i o n 1.636.000 T o t a l $43,500,000 888
NATIONAL COMMITTEE D. Education and Information 1. Dissemination of IGY Information. I n the spring of 1954 at the annual meeting of the Academy, a series of papers on the IGY s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s was presented by the members of the U. S. National Committee f o r IGY. These papers, widely d i s - t r i b u t e d i n response to i n q u i r i e s from s c i e n t i s t s , teachers and students, were published i n the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 40, No. 10. By mid 1955 the U. S. program had been developed t o the point where some instrumentation p r o j e c t s had been i n i t i a t e d and preparations were being made f o r the f i r s t season i n A n t a r c t i c a t o commence i n the f a l l of 1956. Arrangements were made, the r e f o r e , w i t h the American Association f o r the Advancement of Science to schedule a symposium on IGY at the A t l a n t a meeting. Chairmen or other representatives of the various t e c h n i c a l panels gave papers o u t l i n i n g the geophysical problems i n t h e i r areas and how the IGY might c o n t r i b u t e t o a b e t t e r understanding of these s c i e n t i f i c problems. Several of the papers were l a t e r published i n S c i e n t i f i c Monthly (merged w i t h Science) i n 1956. Since the a n t a r c t i c p o r t i o n of the IGY program was the f i r s t t o be put i n operation, a t t e n t i o n m 1956 focused on t h i s area. I n cooperation w i t h the American Geophysical Union, a symposium on the A n t a r c t i c was arranged f o r the annual spring meeting of AGU m Washington, D. C. Sixteen papers were given by the U. S. s c i e n t i s t s who were involved i n the IGY planning and operations; these papers were c o l l e c t e d and published as AGU Geophysical Monograph No. 1, "Antarct i c a i n the IGY," 1956. The monograph included a large map, prepared by the American Geographical Society. A v a r i e t y of a c t i v i t i e s was undertaken by the IGY s t a f f f o r the purpose of developing m a t e r i a l t h a t would be of i n t e r e s t and help t o s c i e n t i s t s as w e l l as students and t h e i r teachers. The s t a f f assembled f o r loan t o such persons a s t i l l photograph l i b r a r y of approximately 750 subjects; a c o l l e c t i o n of some 80 motion p i c t u r e s made by other organizations on IGY-related subjects; 280 s l i d e s ; and four d i f f e r e n t e x h i b i t s on s a t e l l i t e s , the IGY i n general and the "Planet Earth" poster p r o j e c t (described below). Using materials of the above k i n d , hundreds of addresses were made by s c i e n t i s t s i n the IGY program. I n the 18-month IGY period. Academy personnel made 156 t a l k s on the IGY and suggested p r o j e c t personnel and other speakers f o r 98 other occasions. Audiences ranged from s c i e n t i f i c groups t o pup i l s i n the elementary grades. A p a r t i c u l a r l y notable occasion was the Report on IGY sponsored by the F r o n t i e r s of Science Foundation m Oklahoma C i t y on A p r i l 3, 1959. An audience of 6,000 selected high school students and t h e i r teachers heard leading s c i e n t i s t s discuss the IGY program. On scores of occasions both r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n audiences have received reports on various aspects of geophysics and of the IGY. The IGY s t a f f cooperated w i t h the Un i v e r s i t y of Minnesota and the National Education T e l e v i s i o n Center m a series of twelve t e l e v i s i o n programs on the IGY a n t a r c t i c program, each dealing broadly w i t h a s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e . Appearing m each program. Dr. L. M. Gould d i r e c t e d t h i s series which was d i s t r i b u t e d to t h i r t y - t h r e e educational t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s . An- other series of ten programs dealing w i t h the IGY was prepared by the Educational T e l e v i s i o n and Radio Center i n cooperation w i t h the National Broadcasting Company. Dr. Joseph Kaplan and other s c i e n t i s t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n these programs, broadcast over 15 educational TV s t a t i o n s and then made a v a i l a b l e i n kinescope t o other s t a t i o n s . Other programs covering IGY ma t e r i a l included CBS' "Conquest", John Hopkins' " F i l e 7" over ABC-TV, and "Time f o r Science", produced by the Greater Washington Educational T e l e v i s i o n Association. 889
NATIONAL COMMITTEE During the IGY period, the Academy issued 73 public statements on IGY subjects and held ten press conferences. Published material came t o the a t t e n t i o n of students and teachers not only through the general media of newspapers and popular magazines but through specialized p u b l i c a t i o n s going t o schools (such as Science News L e t t e r . Current Science. Science World). Many students and teachers sought information by d i r e c t request t o the Academy. During the IGY, the s t a f f responded to thousands of such i n q u i r i e s . Special assistance was given t o many i n d i v i d u a l w r i t e r s and e d i t o r s . This ranged from answering telephone i n q u i r i e s t o assembling a r t i c l e s of s c i e n t i s t s f o r two special IGY sections of the New York Herald Tribune. More than 70 a r t i c l e s were w r i t t e n by s t a f f members f o r encyclopedias, magazines and newspapers. One of these a r t i c l e s provided broad coverage of the earth sciences f o r a large number of students and teachers (the pamphlet Science Explores our World); covering i n 48 i l l u s t r a t e d pages the various d i s c i p l i n e s studied i n the IGY, t h i s was prepared f o r the Depart- ment of School Service and P u b l i c a t i o n s , Wesleyan U n i v e r s i t y and received a d i s t r i b u t i o n i n two e d i t i o n s t o t a l l i n g approximately 250,000 copies. A series of seven a r t i c l e s on IGY a c t i v i t i e s was prepared f o r The Science Teacher. a p u b l i c a t i o n of the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) reaching 40,000 science teachers throughout the country. Another series of eight a r t i c l e s was prepared f o r Tomorrow's S c i e n t i s t s , also an NSTA p u b l i c a t i o n , but designed f o r elementary school classes. Reprints from both were given a d d i t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n response t o d i r e c t i n q u i r i e s . Special events were also reported. I n 1958, the U, S. National Committee f o r the IGY sponsored the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of a j u n i o r astronomer i n the Danger Islands Eclipse Expedition. The f o l l o w i n g year, the National Committee undertook a s i m i l a r a c t i v i t y i n connection w i t h the Eclipse Expedition to the Canary Islands. A boy scout was chosen t o serve as a technical aide during the f i r s t year of the IGY a n t a r c t i c program. 2. Congressional Reports. By early 1956, i t was obvious t h a t the demand f o r IGY inf o r m a t i o n , not only from s c i e n t i s t s but also from the general p u b l i c , p a r t i c u l a r l y from students, was increasing a t a r a t e t h a t could not be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y accommodated by the e x i s t i n g IGY s t a f f without seriously j e o p a r d i z i n g the planning, budgetary and tech n i c a l work necessary t o assure the ord e r l y conduct of the U, S, IGY program. The necessity to add to the s t a f f m order t o keep up w i t h the demands f o r IGY technical information became apparent during the hearing i n May 1956 before the Subcommittee on Independent O f f i c e Appropriation and Government Matters of the Senate Committee on Appropriations. Members of the Subcommittee expressed great i n t e r e s t i n the IGY and i t s possible impact on science teaching i n the nation's schools. The Academy's IGY Committee was requested t o prepare a r e p o r t on the IGY f o r p u b l i c a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n by the Senate. I n the acknowledgement to the r e p o r t . Senator Magnuson, Chairman of the Subcommittee wrote, " I t appears t o me t h a t the story of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year -- i t s programs and objectives -- should be made known t o the c i t i z e n s of the United States since the r e s u l t s of t h i s venture, p a r t i c u l a r l y as they r e l a t e t o weather f o r e c a s t i n g , communications and t r a n s p o r t - a t i o n , may w e l l a f f e c t the l i v e s of a l l of us. Furthermore, at a time when the United States urgently requires more and b e t t e r t r a i n e d s c i e n t i s t s and engineers, the e x c i t i n g nature of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year should serve as a stimulant t o our youngsters toward careers i n science." The r e p o r t was widely d i s t r i b u t e d by the Senate Subcommittee members; the Academy also used t h i s document extensively i n answering i n q u i r i e s from students and the p u b l i c ( " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year, A Special Report" prepared by the National Academy of Sciences f o r the Committee on Appropriations of the U. S. Senate, 84th Congress, 2nd Session, Senate document No. 124, May 28, 1956, USGPO). The strong i n t e r e s t expressed by the Senate encour- aged the development of several a c t i v i t i e s described below. 890
NATIONAL COMMITTEE I n May 1957, representatives of the National Science Foundation and members of the U. S. National Committee together w i t h several key U. S. IGY p a r t i c i p a t i n g s c i e n t i s t s met w i t h the Subcommittee on Independent O f f i c e s , Committee on Appropri- a t i o n s , House of Representatives, A d e t a i l e d r e p o r t was made to the Congressmen on the i n t e r n a t i o n a l program and coordination of na t i o n a l e f f o r t s , progress of the earth s a t e l l i t e and oceanography program, and the establishment and operation of the s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s i n A n t a r c t i c a , Plans were also revealed concerning the World Data Centers f o r the c o l l e c t i o n , s t o r i n g and dissemination of the IGY data t o i n - terested s c i e n t i s t s . I n February 1959, the IGY was again the subject of a review of progress by the House Subcommittee on Independent O f f i c e s , Witnesses included the Dire c t o r of the National Science Foundation, the President of the National Academy of Sciences, the Chairman of the U. S, National Committee and IGY s c i e n t i s t s r e - p o r t i n g on the work i n seismology and g r a v i t y , oceanography, meteorology, solar a c t i v i t y , ionospheric physics, the a r c t i c and a n t a r c t i c program and discoveries made by the f i r s t several s a t e l l i t e s and space probes. 3. Symposia on IGY S c i e n t i f i c Problems and Results. At the opening of the IGY â July 1, 1957 -- the U. S. National Committee conducted a three-day symposium ( i n Washington, D. C ) tha t included a status report on each s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e and discussion concerning some of the s c i e n t i f i c problems under study. T h i r t y papers were published as AGU Monograph No. 2 "Geophysics and the IGY", American Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C, 1958. IGY symposia were also planned by the U. S. National Committee and held as part of the annual meetings of the AAAS i n 1958 i n Washington, D. C, and 1959 m Chicago, I l l i n o i s , I n August 1963, the Academy's Geophysics Research Board (which had assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y from the U. S. National Committee f o r the termination of the U. S. IGY program) arranged an i n t e r n a t i o n a l IGY Symposium which was sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences at the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at Los Angeles, C a l i f o r n i a . P a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h i s symposium were selected by a program committee c o n s i s t i n g of the USNC Executive Committee and members of CSAGI, Two simultaneous sessions were held: a.) So l i d Earth and I n t e r f a c e Phenomena, and b.) Sun, I n t e r - planetary Medium, and the Earth's Upper Atmosphere. The papers -- 83 -- were pub- l i s h e d i n two volumes, e n t i t l e d "Research i n Geophysics", Volume J. "Sun, Upper Atmosphere and Space," Volume 2 "So l i d Earth and I n t e r f a c e Phenomena," M.I.T. Press, 1964. 4. Documentation. A catalogue and f i l e of documents r e l a t e d t o the IGY was systematically maintained by the Academy's IGY s t a f f . The purpose was t h r e e f o l d ' a.) to serve as a reference c o l l e c t i o n , b.) to c o n t r i b u t e to the permanent record of the IGY and c.) t o f a c i l i t a t e f u r n i s h i n g t o CSAGI i n accordance w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l agreement, b i b l i o g r a p h i c references t o US-IGY c o n t r i b u t i o n s . To these ends, attempts were made t o obtain as complete a c o l l e c t i o n as possible of U. S. and for e i g n IGY-IGC documents. The c o l l e c t i o n consists of approximately 10,000 books, a r t i c l e s , r e p o r t s , manuscripts, and memoranda on the various aspects of the IGY program and IGY r e l a t e d studies. This m a t e r i a l , of which a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n deals w i t h rockets and s a t e l l i t e s , stresses the s c i e n t i f i c r e s u l t s obtained during IGY and IGC-59. Back- ground m a t e r i a l i s included on the IGY organization, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , development of s c i e n t i f i c program and i t s s c i e n t i f i c content. The documents are catalogued by sub- j e c t , author, and t i t l e : index cards contain b r i e f a b s t r a c t s . 5. "Planet Earth" P r o i e c t . Late i n 1956, plans were approved f o r the preparation of the "Planet Earth" p r o j e c t which consisted of three parts: a.) a poster-brochure p r o j e c t , b.) a f i l m program, and c.) a general documentation e f f o r t . Many leading s c i e n t i s t s and s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , p u b l i c and p r i v a t e , cooperated extensively i n the development and completion of t h i s general educational e f f o r t on the part of the U, S. National Committee. Generous support of these e f f o r t s was provided by the Ford Foundation. 891
NATIONAL COMMITTEE I n a r r i v i n g at c r i t e r i a f o r planning t h i s p r o j e c t , advice was sought from many educators and s c i e n t i s t s i n several public and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . To administer t h i s p r o j e c t . Dr. Detlev W. Bronk, President of the Academy, appointed an Advisory Committee on Education (IGY). Serving on t h i s Committee were the f o l l o w i n g : W. W. Atwood, J r . ( D i r e c t o r of the then NAS O f f i c e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s ) , James S. Coles (President, Bowdoin College), Carey Croneis (Provost, Rice I n s t i t u t e ) , L. M. Gould (President, Carleton College), J. Wallace Joyce (Head, O f f i c e f o r Special I n t e r n a t i o n a l Programs, National Science Foundation), Joseph Kaplan (Chairman, USNC- IGY), John R. Mayor ( D i r e c t o r of Education, AAAS), Hugh Odishaw (Executive D i r e c t o r , USNC-IGY), A. H. Shapley (Vice-Chairman, USNC-IGY), and Randall M. Whaley (Executive Secretary, NAS Advisory Board on Education). A. W. F r u t k m served as s t a f f Secretary u n t i l h i s r e s i g n a t i o n September 14, 1959, when J. C. Truesdale, J r . , assumed h i s duties as D i r e c t o r of the IGY O f f i c e of Information. Execution of the program was i n the hands of Hugh Odishaw. a. Poster Program. The poster-brochure p r o j e c t , c a l l e d "Planet Earth" and com- pleted i n November 1958, has three components: ( i ) s i x posters, ( i i ) a student brochure, and ( i n ) a teacher's k i t . The purpose of "Planet Earth" was s e v e r a l - f o l d : t o e x c i t e the i n t e r e s t m the geophysical sciences, t o suggest the u n i t y of man's knowledge, and t o provide informative n a r r a t i o n f o r student and teacher a l i k e . The subjects covered i n t h i s p r o j e c t are ind i c a t e d by the t i t l e s of the posters: Earth, Oceans, Poles, Weather & Climate. Sun & Earth, and Space. D i s t r i b u t i o n of "Planet Earth" was i n i t i a t e d i n the middle of the 1958-59 academic year. Two mailings were made t o science teachers on the l i s t s of the National Science Teachers Association. As of the end of the academic year, June 1, 1959, some 2700 classrooms had purchased the recommended "package" co n s i s t i n g of a set of s i x posters, t h i r t y student brochures and one teacher's k i t . At the end of t h i s period, about 90,000 student brochures were i n the hands of high school students and over 15,000 posters mounted m auditoriums and classrooms. C u r r e n t l y , some 6,000 sets of posters have been placed i n schools. As the "Planet Earth" f i l m s (see below) were placed on overseas t e l e v i s i o n networks, a com- plementary arrangement was made t o supply bulk q u a n t i t i e s of the posters and student brochures t o the countries concerned. Posters were d i s t r i b u t e d on t h i s basis to Rhodesia and Nyasaland; Tanganyika, Kenya and Bechuanaland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom; Canada, New Zealand and I t a l y . The United States Information Agency obtained f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n t o schools and other educational i n s t i t u t i o n s overseas sets of posters, student brochures and teacher's k i t s . A f t e r i n i t i a t i o n of t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n program, many USIS posts r e - quested a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l , f o r example, the post at New D e l h i was sent 200 poster sets w i t h accompanying brochures and k i t s . b. "Planet Earth" F i l m Series. The second p r i n c i p a l a c t i v i t y i n the Academy's IGY educational program was the f i l m p r o j e c t : t h i r t e e n 27-minute f i l m s covering the p r i n c i p a l geophysical f i e l d s of i n t e r e s t during the IGY. Here again, the con- tent i s not r e s t r i c t e d to the IGY and an attempt was made t o synthesize man's know- ledge i n each area. F i l m footage was taken i n a l l parts of the world both during and a f t e r the IGY, p r o v i d i n g the stimulus and i n t e r e s t of f i e l d work at home and i n faraway places. To demonstrate t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s and to reveal experimental methods not r e a d i l y accessible t o photography, considerable animation i s employed. The scope of the p r o j e c t can be suggested by the f o l l o w i n g subjects: seismology, g r a v i t y , geodesy, oceanography, meteorology, g l a c i o l o g y , solar a c t i v i t y , aurora, radio waves, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, research using rockets, and space science. 892
NATIONAL COMMITTEE ( i ) Production. A f t e r some p i l o t work, accumulation of footage and some preliminary work i n association w i t h WGBH (educational t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n i n Cam- bri d g e , Massachusetts), the Academy's IGY s t a f f assumed f u l l d i r e c t i o n of the pro- gram as producer and s c i e n t i f i c d i r e c t o r . Arrangements were made w i t h Louis de Rochmont and Associates, New York, f o r the services of Luther Wolff (as f i l m pro- ducer) and use of o f f i c e f a c i l i t i e s , A c u t t i n g - e d i t i n g - s c r i p t u n i t was established under Luther W o l f f , which worked w i t h the IGY s t a f f i n producing the s e r i e s . The fi l m s were completed i n the f a l l of 1961. ( l i ) D i s t r i b u t i o n . The Academy concluded negotiations w i t h the McGraw-Hill Book Company f o r the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the series t o schools and research i n s t i t u t i o n s . Over 12,000 i n d i v i d u a l f i l m s were d i s t r i b u t e d t o various i n s t i t u t i o n s . ( l i i ) Foreign Audio-Visual Use. The Motion Pi c t u r e D i v i s i o n of USIA purchased several sets of the "Planet Earth" f i l m s f o r use i n the various USIA posts abroad. Shipped overseas by USIA upon request, the f i l m s have received wide coverage and the response t o t h e i r showing has been e n t h u s i a s t i c . Spanish, Portugese and Arabic narr a t i o n s were made by USIA f o r use m showings t o audiences overseas. Spanish and Portugese versions of the "Planet Earth" f i l m s were shown i n South America, Spain and Portugal. I n Manila, the "Planet Earth" f i l m s were shown i n English followed by a second run i n Spanish. The Arabic version was used i n the Middle East. English version w i t h s u b t i t l e s i n the native language were used i n Europe, Asia and parts of A f r i c a . The countries i n which "Planet Earth" f i l m s were used: English: Hong Kong, Korea, I r a n , Kuwait, U.A.R. (als o shown the second time i n A r a b i c ) , A u s t r i a , Ibadan, Denmark, Norway, Yugoslavia ( t w i c e ) , Thailand, Switzerland, N i g e r i a , Pakistan, I n d i a , Uganda, Morroco Arabic: U.A.R., I r a q , Lebanon, Syrian Arabic Republic, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait Spanish: Spain, B o l i v i a , Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Uruguay, Nicaragua, Curacao Portugese: B r a z i l , Portugal ( i v ) U. S. T e l e v i s i o n . T e l e v i s i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n r i g h t s of the f i l m s were retai n e d by the Academy which placed the series on various commercial TV sta t i o n s throughout the country. The f o l l o w i n g commercial TV st a t i o n s have broadcast the series: KNXT Los Angeles, C a l i f o r n i a ; WBEN B u f f a l o , New York; WCAU Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; WMAL Washington, D. C.; KPRC Houston, Texas, KTVA Anchorage, Alaska; WMS Nas h v i l l e , Tennessee; WJW Cleveland, Ohio; WAVE L o u i s v i l l e , Kentucky, KRON San Francisco, C a l i f o r n i a ; WJRT F l i n t , Michigan. I n June 1963, the Academy concluded an arrangement w i t h the National Edu- c a t i o n a l T e l e v i s i o n and Radio Center (NET) f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n of the "Planet Earth" series over educational t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s adhering t o NET. Educational t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s t h a t have scheduled the series are as fo l l o w s : KAET Phoenix KCTS Seattle KERA Dallas KETA Norman KLRN Austin KNME Albuquerque KTPS Tacoma KUAT Tucson KWCS Ogden WCIQ Alabama WDCN Nashville WEDH Har t f o r d WEDU Tampa WENH Durham WETA Washington, D.C. WGBH Boston WGTV Athens WHA Madison WILL Urbana WITV Charleston WMHT Albany WNED Bu f f a l o WOSU Columbus WQED Pitts b u r g h WSIU Carbondale WTHS Miami WVAN Savannah WXGA Waycross WYES New Orleans 893
NATIONAL COMMITTEE These f i l m s were also shown on the Armed Forces TV network at the f o l l o w i n g l o c a t i o n s : C i r c u i t 1- Lajes F i e l d , Azores; Wheelus F i e l d , T r i p o l i ; Ramstein A i r Force Base, Germany; Spangdahlem A i r Force Base, Germany; Teheran, I r a n ; I r a k l i o n , Crete. C i r c u i t 2: Thule A i r Force Base, Greenland; Sondrestrom A i r Force Base, Greenland; Goose Bay A i r Force Base, Labrador; Harmon A i r Force Base, Newfoundland, K e f l a v i k A i r p o r t , Iceland. C i r c u i t 3: Seoul, Korea; Misawa, Japan; Clark A i r Force Base, P h i l i p p i n e s ; Okinawa; Dhahran F i e l d , Saudi Arabia, Asmara, E r i t r e a . C i r c u i t 4: Fort Clayton, Canal Zone, Ramey A i r Force Base, Puerto Rico; Roosevelt Roads, Puerto Rico; Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. C i r c u i t 5: Fort Greely, Alaska; Wildwood S t a t i o n , Alaska; Kodiak, Alaska; Adak, Alaska; Midway I s l a n d . (v) Commercial T e l e v i s i o n Abroad. The Academy placed the "Planet Earth" series overseas w i t h the f o l l o w i n g networks: BBC, Great B r i t a i n ; CBC (French Net- work v i a Niagara Films, I n c . ) Canada; A u s t r a l i a n TV ( v i a Nuclear Research Foundation of the U n i v e r s i t y of Sydney), A u s t r a l i a , Federal M i n i s t r y of Education, Rhodesia & Nyasaland, NZ Broadcasting Service, New Zealand; Sveriges Radio, Sweden; Radio Tele- communication Francaise, France; RAI, I t a l y ; German TV ( v i a W e l t f i l m & Fernseh (GmbH), Germany, Tesvisio, Finland. c. The IGY B u l l e t i n . The IGY B u l l e t i n was conceived as a monthly survey of the United States IGY program and, to the extent that space was a v a i l a b l e , of programs of other p a r t i c i p a t i n g nations. The f i r s t issue was published i n July 1957. I n i t i a l l y , the B u l l e t i n was d i s t r i b u t e d on a complimentary basis to IGY s c i e n t i s t s and research i n s t i t u t i o n s i n the United States and i n the various other p a r t i c i p a t - i n g countries as w e l l as to key persons i n science, education, i n d u s t r y , government, and the s c i e n t i f i c press i n order to keep them informed of plans and developments i n the IGY program. From i t s i n c e p t i o n , the B u l l e t i n was r e p r i n t e d i n the Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, thus widening i t s c i r c u l a t i o n and keeping a s t i l l greater number of physical s c i e n t i s t s apprised of developments i n geophysical d i s - c i p l i n e s r e l a t e d to t h e i r own. Owing t o the s u b s t a n t i a l i n t e r e s t shown i n the B u l l e t i n by students, teachers, educational i n s t i t u t i o n s , p ublic l i b r a r i e s and the general p u b l i c , i t was also made av a i l a b l e on a s u b s c r i p t i o n basis i n the spring of 1958. I n i t s separate, r e p r i n t form and as r e p r i n t e d i n the Transactions of the AGU the B u l l e t i n achieved a peak c i r c u l a t i o n of about 15,000. I n a d d i t i o n , i t has been a v a i l a b l e t o many other readers m l i b r a r i e s throughout the world. During the IGY and IGC-59, and f o r about a year and a h a l f afterward, the B u l l e t i n reported p r i m a r i l y on IGY/IGC programs and r e s u l t s . Gradually, however, the B u l l e t i n contents turned increasingly t o plans and r e s u l t s m other geophysics programs of i n t e r n a t i o n a l scope s i m i l a r t o , and o f t e n outgrowths o f , the programs and d i s c i p l i n e s of the IGY/IGC, while continuing to report on r e s u l t s emanating from IGY/IGC data as they became a v a i l a b l e . As a r e f l e c t i o n of t h i s broader o r i e n t - a t i o n , the name of the B u l l e t i n was changed, w i t h B u l l e t i n No. 62, August 1962, from I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year B u l l e t i n (IGY B u l l e t i n ) to I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysics B u l l e t i n (IG B u l l e t i n ) . 894
NATIONAL COMMITTEE I n the post-IGY/IGC period. B u l l e t i n coverage emphasized i n P^^^^icular such i n t e r n a t i o n a l endeavors as the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Years of the Quiet Sun (IQSY 1964-65), the World Magnetic Survey, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Indian Ocean Expedition, the continuing s c i e n t i f i c research programs i n the A n t a r c t i c , the Upper Mantle P r o j e c t , and space research. 895
NATIONAL COMMITTEE E. D i r e c t i o n and Coordination 1. National Committee D i r e c t i o n of U. S. Program. Once plans and procedures were adequately developed, the U. S. National Committee (a) concerned i t s e l f w i t h o v e r a l l broad p o l i c i e s f o r the t o t a l U. S. IGY program and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o the programs of other countries as coordinated by CSAGI and (b) delegated d e t a i l e d d i r e c t i o n and coordination of the U. S. program t o i t s Executive Committee and Executive D i r e c t o r . Under Executive Committee guidance, the t e c h n i c a l panels undertook r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r developing d e t a i l e d plans f o r the program w i t h i n each s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e , f o r s p e c i f i c recommendations regarding the p r o j e c t s p e r t i n e n t t o the programs i n each f i e l d , and f o r recommendations concerning i n s t i t u t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s capable of executing such p r o j e c t s . Special committees were concerned w i t h e i t h e r the r e g i o n a l coherence of the program or w i t h special t o p i c s , which l a r g e l y r e l a t e d to data pro- cessing, evaluation, and p u b l i c a t i o n , and were common t o several or a l l d i s c i p l i n e s . 2. Program A l l o c a t i o n s . As a basis f o r planning, the Executive Committee agreed to a l l o c a t e to each s c i e n t i f i c program a s p e c i f i c amount of funds based on the appropri- ations t h a t were approved by the Congress. At i t s meeting on A p r i l 4, 1956, the Executive Committee approved or established adjustments to the budget f o r each techni c a l program that would assure the s a t i s f a c t o r y conduct of the U. S. program. As a matter of p o l i c y , the Executive Committee and the National Science Foundation decided to fund each p r o j e c t i n several installments i n order to provide f l e x i b i l i t y during the operational phases of the program; t h i s arrangement served also to pro- vide a basis f o r prompt a l l o c a t i o n of funds to top p r i o r i t y p r o j e c t s and t o new or fo r added p r o j e c t s a c t i v i t i e s t h a t might r e s u l t from developments during the IGY. 3. Technical Panel Considerations. W i t h i n the l i m i t s established f o r t h e i r res- pective s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s , the technical panels were requested t o develop a funding program t o serve as a guide m the disbursement of funds f o r each s c i e n t i f i c p r o j e c t . At a meeting on A p r i l 9, 1956 of the Panel Chairmen and U. S, National Committee o f f i c e r s w i t h the IGY S t a f f , decisions were made on funding each program p r o j e c t and steps were taken t o a c t i v a t e the operational phase of the U. S. IGY program. For t h i s purpose, formal dociiments t i t l e d " A c t i v a t i o n of USNC IGY Research P r o j e c t " were mailed to the d i r e c t o r s of each p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n and to pro- j e c t leaders s o l i c i t i n g formal approval of p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the IGY program. 4. Funding Procedure. The U. S. IGY program was organized by p r o j e c t s w i t h i n s p e c i f i c geophysical program f i e l d s . Assignment of pr o j e c t s t o p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n s was made upon the recommendations of a p a r t i c u l a r t e c h n i c a l panel on the basis of proposals from and the experience of a given i n s t i t u t i o n . The admin- i s t r a t i v e arrangements were made by the National Science Foundation, which disbursed funds i n the form of grants to public and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s upon the recommend- a t i o n of the USNC Executive Committee. Proposed grants were reviewed by the tech- n i c a l panels, the IGY S t a f f , and the Executive Committee. Each request to the National Science Foundation f o r fund disbursement included s p e c i f i c statements by the Panel Chairman to the e f f e c t that the need f o r each p r o j e c t had been examined and approved. Further, the Executive Di r e c t o r and the Chairman of the U. S. National Committee c e r t i f i e d w i t h each request the relevancy and necessity to the IGY of the p r o j e c t , i t s approval by the U. S. National Committee and Executive Committee, and the s c i e n t i f i c competence of the i n s t i t u t i o n undertaking the research i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A u t h o r i t y was given the Executive Di r e c t o r t o request grants not m excess of $25,000 subject t o approval of the U. S. IGY Executive Committee. 5. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Funds. Funds appropriated by the Congress were apportioned according t o purpose: a ) s c i e n t i f i c and r e l a t e d programs and b.) techni c a l d i r e c t i o n . T o t a l planned d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a.) amounted t o $41,864,000; f o r b.) $1,636,000 which included ( i ) $1,351,000 f o r support of the U. S. National Committee 896
NATIONAL COMMITTEE for the IGY and the Academy's IGY s t a f f and ( i i ) $285,000 f o r the National Science Foundation a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f t h a t had been established f o r the purpose. Tot a l requested disbursement of funds during the IGY amounted t o $43,176,261 of which $41,798,995 was f o r support of the s c i e n t i f i c program and $1,377,266 f o r tech n i c a l d i r e c t i o n . The requested disbursement f o r each program i s shown below: Program Amount Aurora and Airglow $ 1,718,022 Cosmic Rays 1,164,812 Geomagnetism 1,580,894 Glaciology 1,137,905 Gravity 505,289 Ionospheric Physics 3,237,816 Longitudes & Latitudes 24,100 Meteorology 2,226,800 Oceanography 2,007,054 Rocketry 2,598,952 Seismology 877,049 Solar A c t i v i t y 307,378 World Days 229,050 I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Research 1,750,526 Earth S a t e l l i t e 19,843,210 World Data Center 1,513,587 General S c i e n t i f i c Support 1,076,551 Technical D i r e c t i o n 1.377.266 Total $43.176.261 6. I n i t i a l Funding. Subsequent t o Congressional approval i n August 1954 of the i n i t i a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r $2 m i l l i o n f o r the U. S. program, the U. S. National Committee requested the Foundation t o grant funds t o several IGY p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s t o purchase e s s e n t i a l equipment w i t h long lead time to be used i n the observational phase of the program. The f i r s t requests were for the procurement of ionospheric and aur o r a l instruments and rockets and a u x i l i a r y equipment. On November 9, 1954 a t the request of the U. S. National Committee, $775,000 and $400,000 were granted t o the O f f i c e of Naval Research and National Bureau of Standards, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r these purposes by the National Science Foundation. By the end of 1954, f u r t h e r requests had been made t o the Foundation f o r grants t o a.) the High A l t i t u d e Observatory f o r high dispersion spectrographic equipment f o r use i n the Solar A c t i v i t y program, b.) the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey f o r the development and procurement o£ three component magnetographs and accessories f o r the geomagnetic programs, and c.) the National Bureau of Standards f o r the Procurement of airglow photometers f o r use i n the aurora program. Funding a c t i v i t y continued i n t o 1955, and by the end of f i s c a l year 1955, a t o t a l of 26 grants f o r $1,877,513 had been made t o IGY p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . 7. Grants f o r Operational Phase of U. S. Program. During Congressional consider- a t i o n i n March 1956 of the FY 1956 supplemental budget, the IGY s t a f f worked w i t h National Science Foundation representatives t o develop plans f o r immediate funding of the bulk of the U. S. program. Up t o t h i s time, grants had been made p r i n c i p a l l y , as noted above, f o r the procurement of es s e n t i a l equipment and supplies and the development of f i e l d i n s t a l l a t i o n s . Some grants had been made f o r operating expenses, p r i n c i p a l l y f o r p r o j e c t s i n the a n t a r c t i c program, f o r which early preparation was needed i n view of the r e v e r s a l of seasons i n the Southern Hemisphere. The need at the moment was f o r early disbursement of funds so t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s would have appropriate f l e x i b i l i t y f o r the proper execution of the IGY program. 897
NATIONAL COMMITTEE The procedure f i n a l l y evolved was based on the funding needs of each p r o j e c t i n the U, S. program and plans were developed that provided f o r innnediate funding of a l l the preparatory and operational aspects of the U. S. program, i n c l u d i n g requirements f o r equipment and supplies t h a t had not been funded pr e v i o u s l y . On August 1, 1956, complete s c i e n t i f i c descriptions and budgets of IGY p r o j e c t s f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h i s category were submitted t o the Foundation f o r endorsement and approval by the National Science Board. At i t s meeting on August 20, 1956, the U. S. IGY Executive Committee approved funding Chat would meet the needs of each p r o j e c t f o r f i s c a l years 1957 and 1958. Following National Science Board approval, the Foundation was requested by the Executive Committee t o make grants t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h i s category. I n l i n e w i t h the Executive Committee's expressed p o l i c y (see above), consideration of funds f o r f i s c a l year 1959 was deferred t o a l a t e r date. 8. Number of IGY Grants. The t o t a l number of grants made during the IGY was 1105, The number of grants and amount of corresponding funds by f i s c a l year are shown below. F i s c a l Year No. of Grants Amount 1955 26 1956 222 $ 1,877,513 14,583,590 1957 230 14,646,470 1958 252 6,561,469 1959 199 4,419,502 1960 176 1.087.717 T o t a l 1105 $ 43,176,261 9. Grants f o r Observational Program. Of the t o t a l amount requested, $33,186,320 were disbursed f o r p r o j e c t s that were concerned s o l e l y w i t h observations, i n c l u d i n g p r o j e c t s i n the Earth S a t e l l i t e Program and General S c i e n t i f i c Support. Disburse- ment of funds f o r these purposes i s summarized by program area as f o l l o w s : Proiect Amount Aurora & Airglow $ 829,438 Cosmic Rays 278,942 Geomagnetism 1,231,053 Glaciology 641,398 Gravity 355,329 Ionospheric Physics 2,726,271 Longitude & L a t i t u d e 24,100 Meteorology 2,059,293 Oceanography 591,276 Rocketry 2,598,952 Seismology 463,327 Solar A c t i v i t y 238,130 World Days 229,050 Earth S a t e l l i t e 19,843,210 General S c i e n t i f i c Support 1.076.551 Total $33,186,320 10. Data Reduction. Specific data reduction p r o j e c t s were established i n most d i s c i p l i n e s of the U. S. program. I n a d d i t i o n , p r o j e c t s were approved that included both data reduction and observation a c t i v i t i e s . Following approval of plans f o r the establishment of world data centers, the U. S. IGY Executive Committee undertook a review of data reduction p r o j e c t s and on May 17, 1957 the t e c h n i c a l panels r e - appraised t h e i r data reduction needs i n the l i g h t of the changes th a t had occurred 898
NATIONAL COMMITTEE since the Inception of the program. At the same time, panels were i n v i t e d t o submit ideas and proposals f o r data analyses p r o j e c t s . Primary consideration was t o be given t o studies i n v o l v i n g data from several d i s c i p l i n e s . 11. Funding of Data Reduction P r o j e c t s . At i t s meeting on December 9, 1957, the Executive Committee considered the recoiranendations of the tec h n i c a l panels f o r t h i s purpose. Tot a l funds requested by the panels exceeded the a l l o c a t i o n t h a t had been approved by the Executive Committee f o r the data reduction program. I n view of t h i s s i t u a t i o n and the f a c t t h a t a d d i t i o n a l requests were known to be pending f o r more funds f o r data r e d u c t i o n , the Executive Committee included an appropriate amount i n the supplemental budget f o r FY 1959 (see above). I n the meantime, i n the i n t e r e s t of p e r m i t t i n g obviously necessary data reduction work t o proceed, the Executive Committee authorized funding up t o 40% of the approved p r o j e c t budgets as an i n t e r i m f i s c a l measure. Soon t h e r e a f t e r , i t was evident that t h i s l i m i t a t i o n would hamper the work m t h i s area. At i t s next meeting on January 8, 1958, t h e r e f o r e , the Committee authorized f u r t h e r funding beyond the 407, l e v e l f o r p r o j e c t s t h a t had been approved by the panels. The f i r s t s p e c i f i c submission t o the Foundation f o r funds t o provide f o r data reduction a c t i v i t i e s was made on March 6, 1958, a t which time a t o t a l of $269,107 was requested. For the remainder of the year, a d d i t i o n a l requests were made p e r i o d i c a l l y and by the end of 1958, e s s e n t i a l l y a l l data reduction pro- j e c t s had been funded. During the IGY a t o t a l of $5,348,562 was disbursed f o r data reduction as shown below by program d i s c i p l i n e : ' Project Amount Aurora and Airglow $ 888,584 Cosmic Rays 885,870 Geomagnetism 349,841 Glaciology 496,507 Gravity 149,960 Ionospheric Physics 511,545 Meteorology 167,507 Oceanography 1,415,778 Seismology 413,722 Solar A c t i v i t y 69.248 Total $5,348,562 12. World Data Center A (USA). At the time the FY 1956 supplemental budget was under consideration, an amount of $1,438,000 had been included f o r operations of WDC-A. This f i g u r e was reduced by $494,000 at the suggestion of the Bureau of the Budget. Following Congressional a u t h o r i z a t i o n of the FY 56 supplemental appropri- a t i o n , the Executive Committee i n i t s r e - a l l o c a t i o n of the reduced budget established an estimate of $920,687 f o r WDC-A operations. Budgets submitted by the designated i n s t i t u t i o n s as primary archive centers of WDC-A s u b s t a n t i a l l y exceeded the amounts a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s a c t i v i t y . Following discussions between the IGY s t a f f and representatives of the several i n s t i t u t i o n s , the budget estimates were reduced although the t o t a l amount was s t i l l i n excess of the a v a i l a b l e funds. At i t s meeting on June 7, 1957, the Executive Committee authorized funding t o cover the i n i t i a l operations of the WDC-A subcenters i n 1957-58 and a request f o r t h i s purpose was submitted t o the Foundation on June 12, 1957. Grants t o t a l i n g $384,091 were requested i n order t h a t the operations of the Data Center could be i n i t i a t e d by July 1, 1957. E a r l i e r the Executive Committee had approved establishment of a Data Center Coordination O f f i c e and an i n i t i a l grant of $54,850 was requested t o fund t h i s a c t i v i t y which commenced operations on May 1, 1957 at the National Academy of Sciences. A second request was made t o the Foundation on December 15, 1958 f o r funds t o support the operations of World Data Center - A. I n the i n t e r i m , the FY 59 supplemental budget had been approved and planned funding of 899
NATIONAL COMMITTEE t h i s a c t i v i t y was made possible. A t o t a l amount of $1,513,587 was disbursed m support of WDC-A a c t i v i t i e s , and the d i s t r i b u t i o n of these funds i s shown below: A c t i v i t y Amount S t a f f Study of Data Center $ 23,313 Coordination O f f i c e 127,580 Aurora (Instrumental) 271,760 Aurora (Visual) 100,100 Aurora and Ionosphere 191,070 Cosmic Rays 88,847 Rockets & S a t e l l i t e s 88,500 Geomagnetism, Gravity, Seismology 102,000 Glaciology 130,085 Lat i t u d e and Longitude -0- Meteorology 155,500 Oceanography 159,222 Solar A c t i v i t y 75.610 Total $1,513,587 13. Grants f o r Special I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Research. Assured t h a t funds would be a v a i l a b l e (FY 59 supplemental budget) f o r the special i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y research program (described above) which was formally approved on October 23, 1958, the Executive Committee forwarded on November 7, 1958, a request t o the National Science Foundation f o r grants t o the designated i n s t i t u t i o n s . T o t a l amount disbursed f o r t h i s purpose was $1,750,526 and the d i s t r i b u t i o n of these funds i s shown below: Category Amount Crust fit Core $ 188,125 Heat & Water 514,346 Upper Atmosphere 849,755 Special Research 198,300 T o t a l $1.750,526 900
