Report on the U.S. Program for the International Geophysical Year: July 1, 1957 - December 31, 1958 (1965)

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V I I I METEOROLOGY PROGRAM Observer Checking Radiometers Used to Measure I n t e n s i t y of S o l a r R a d i a t i o n

METEOROLOGY PROGRAM Page A. Organization of Technical Panel f o r Meteorology 323 B. Summary of Panel Actions 324 C. Projec t Objectives and Results 328 8.1 Meteorology Data Reduction & Organization f o r Microcard Dissemination 329 8.2 A n t a r c t i c Meteorological Program 331 8.3 South American Upper A i r Observations 339 8.4 High A l t i t u d e Rawinsonde Observations 340 8.7 A n t a r c t i c Weather Central 342 8.9 A r c t i c Basin Meteorology 345 8.10 Geochemical Measurements 347 8.11 Earth Albedo Observations 349 8.12 Standardization of Dobson Ozone Spectrophotometers 351 8.13 Reduction 6e Preparation f o r Dissemination of A r c t i c and A n t a r c t i c Meteorological Data 352 322

V I I I . METEOROLOGY A. Organization of Technical Panel f o r Meteorology 1. Establishment of the Panel. L e t t e r s were w r i t t e n i n December 1954 asking meteor- o l o g i s t s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n the work of the U.S. National Committee by serving on the Technical Panel f o r Meteorology. Dr. Harry Wexler, U.S. Weather Bureau, convened the f i r s t meeting. Dr. Bernhard Haurwitz was elected chairman at the second meeting. R.N. Culnan, U.S. Weather Bureau, was asked to as s i s t the panel as recording secretary. Dr. D.F. Leipper was named as Executive Vice-Chairman to serve i n the absence of the c h a i r - man i n the l a t t e r part of 1955. As the program developed, new members were added. Dr. Robert M. White, Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e , AFCRL, was i n v i t e d to serve i n February 1955; Gordon Cartwright, U.S. Weather Bureau, and Dr. G.S. Benton, Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y , were asked to be- come members i n July 1956. Consultants were appointed from various agencies i n t e r e s t e d i n the program and the Department of Defense designated l i a i s o n members from the three services. 2. Composition of the Panel. ( A f f i l i a t i o n at time of appointment.) a. Panel Members George S. Benton (Ju l y 1956) Gordon D. Cartwright ( J u l y 1956) Charles R. Dale Robert D. Fletcher Bernhard Haurwitz (From July 1958) Dale F. Leipper Sverre Petterssen Harry Wexler R.M. White (February 1955) The Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y U.S. Weather Bureau U.S. Navy U.S. A i r Force, A i r Weather Service New York U n i v e r s i t y , High A l t i t u d e Observatory A g r i c u l t u r a l and Mechanical College of Texas Un i v e r s i t y of Chicago U.S. Weather Bureau Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e (AFCRL) Consultants Robert N. Culnan Delbert A. Deisinger James H. Hughes Paul A. Humphrey John E. Masterson John A. M i r a b i t o Frances L. Whedon U.S. Weather Bureau U.S. Army Signal Research and Dev. Lab. Off i c e of Naval Research U.S. Weather Bureau U.S. Navy U.S. Navy, Task Force 43 U.S. Army Signal Corps, O f f i c e of the Chief Signal O f f i c e r Secretariat (IGY S t a f f ) G.F. S c h i l l i n g (To July 1955) J.A. DePue ( A p r i l 1956 - June 1957) Stanley Ruttenberg (July 1955 - A p r i l 1956, June 1957 to present) 3. Panel Meetings. There were ten meetings of the panel. F i r s t Meeting Second Meeting Thir d Meeting Fourth Meeting January 10, 1955 February 16, 1955 March 28, 1955 A p r i l 29, 1955 Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. 323

METEOROLOGY F i f t h Meeting S i x t h Meeting Seventh Meeting Eighth Meeting Ninth Meeting Tenth Meeting June 14, 1955 February 15, 1956 A p r i l 20, 1956 October 9, 1956 A p r i l 9, 1957 October 18, 1957 Washington, Washington, Washington, Washington, Washington, Washington, D.C. D.C. D.C. D.C. D.C. D.C. B. Summary of Panel Actions 1. Working Groups. Several working groups were appointed to study p a r t i c u l a r problems and report back to the Panel. These were: a. Rockoon F i r i n g s i n the A n t a r c t i c . Harry Wexler and a representative each of the Army and Navy inves t i g a t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y of f i r i n g rockoons i n the A n t a r c t i c , i n - strumented f o r meteorological parameters. I t was hoped to f i r e rockets during World Meteorological I n t e r v a l s (WMI) i n the winter. Conversations w i t h groups experienced m rocket programs led to the c a n c e l l a t i o n of such plans. b. Observations, Height and Frequency of Radiosonde Observations. G.D. Cartwright, R.D. Fletcher and C.R. Dale met to discuss use of high performance balloons and the number of releases per day that might be f e a s i b l e . Frances Whedon, H. Demboski, J.A. Mir a b i t o , V.S. Hardin, and E.E. Goodale p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the discussions or were con- sulted separately. The group also looked i n t o the p o s s i b i l i t y of using the Finnj/^h radiosonde system i n A n t a r c t i c a and discussed the s t a f f i n g and equipment f o r the pro- posed a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s . c. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Exchange of Data. R.A. A l l e n , H.B. Harshbarger, and M. Rigby met to discuss what kinds of data, and i n what format, might u s e f u l l y be exchanged on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l basis. The r o l e of WMO was also considered. d. Weather Observations from Reconnaissance A i r c r a f t . S. F r i t z , J.C. Bellamy, C.R. Dale, R.D. Fletcher and G.F. S c h i l l i n g discussed the p o s s i b i l i t y of special f l i g h t s of AWS meteorological reconnaissance a i r c r a f t during WMl's, the f l i g h t l e v e l s , and the types of observations that could be obtained. e. Weather Reports from Transport A i r c r a f t . G.D. Cartwright, J.C. Bellamy, R.S. Flynn, F. McGiverin, and N.A. Lieurance met to develop a program to be presented to the commercial a i r l i n e s and p i l o t s f o r rou t i n e weather observations. Suggestions were made as to s i m p l i f i e d r e p o r t i n g forms and d e t a i l s of observations. 2. I n i t i a l CSAGI Program. The major aspects of the CSAGl program were to f i l l i n upper-air s t a t i o n s on pole-to-pole l i n e s at 70-80°W, 10°E, and 140°E, i n s t a l l s t a t i o n s i n regions h i t h e r t o not w e l l covered, as i n the A n t a r c t i c ; make an e f f o r t to a t t a i n soundings to a l t i t u d e s of 100,000 f t . , and obtain ozone and r a d i a t i o n observations from as wide a network as possible. As the program developed the geochemical aspects were enlarged to include carbon-dioxide and a program was accepted to determine the earth's albedo by means of observing the e a r t h l i t lunar crescent. 3. U.S. Program - Early Planning. The f i r s t problems facing the Panel were to advise on the l o c a t i o n and operation of new sta t i o n s i n A n t a r c t i c a , and the study of means to increase the height of radiosonde f l i g h t s . I n consideration of the funds expected to be a v a i l a b l e , i t was not possible to incorporate i n t o the U.S. program several pro- posed i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , but rather to concentrate on f i l l i n g out the 70-80''W chain and high-performance radiosonde balloons. Later, a d d i t i o n a l funds became av a i l a b l e and I t proved possible to expand the program somewhat. 324

METEOROLOGY 4. 70-80°W Chain. I t was recognized that l i t t l e i nformation was a v a i l a b l e from the A r c t i c Ocean. The Panel recommended the establishment of an upper a i r s t a t i o n on Ice I s l a n d T-3, which had been occupied by A i r Force s c i e n t i s t s m e a r l i e r years. I t was not u n t i l 1956, however, that plans became f i r m l y developed f o r establishment of A r c t i c Ocean s t a t i o n s . When T-3 was relocated by the A i r Force, i t was found to be too close to Ellesmere I s l a n d and other upper a i r s t a t i o n s to warrant a f u l l program. The Panel then recommended that a program of surface observations, along w i t h a special program i n geochemistry and r a d i a t i o n , be undertaken at T-3 and a f u l l upper a i r program be included i n the work of S t a t i o n A on the a r c t i c pack i c e , located f a r from e x i s t i n g meteorological s t a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c . Canadian-U.S. cooperative s t a t i o n s i n a r c t i c Canada provided an adequate spacing of sta t i o n s f o r that p o r t i o n of the 70-80°W l i n e . U.S. e x i s t i n g s t a t i o n s i n eastern United States provided the extension of the chain to the Caribbean. Here, s t a t i o n s of the hurricane network, operated cooperatively by the United States and other countries, c a r r i e d the chain of s t a t i o n s to South America v i a Balboa, Canal Zone. The most d i f f i c u l t gap i n the network to f i l l was i n South America, where no upper a i r s t a t i o n s were i n existence on the west coast. The Panel approved the t e n t a t i v e s e l e c t i o n of f i v e cooperative s i t e s (three i n Chile, one each i n Peru and Ecuador) and l e f t I t to the Weather Bureau to make f i n a l arrangements w i t h these other countries. The 70-80°W l i n e was completed by the decision of the USNC to e s t a b l i s h a s t a t i o n at the South Pole. The Panel made recommendations and approved the plans of the Weath- er Bureau f o r s t a f f i n g the s t a t i o n s and f o r the d e t a i l s of the observational program. 5. A n t a r c t i c Weather Central. I t was recognized e a r l y t h a t , i n view of the imminence of a meteorological network i n the A n t a r c t i c , a c e n t r a l data c o l l e c t i o n , analysis, and advisory center would be u s e f u l , not only to summer a i r c r a f t operations, but as a r e - search e f f o r t . The Weather Bureau plans f o r such a center at L i t t l e America, s t a f f e d by U.S. meteorological and guest workers from other countries w i t h a n t a r c t i c programs, were presented to the Panel and approved. 6. A n t a r c t i c Program. While i n i t i a l U.S. plans c a l l e d f o r three a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s . I t f i n a l l y developed t h a t s i x research s t a t i o n s were established, along w i t h the McMurdo Sound l o g i s t i c f a c i l i t y . Based on ea r l y reconnaissance, m which Paul A. Humphrey of the U.S. Weather Bureau p a r t i c i p a t e d as an observer, and the experience of U.S. Navy Task Force 43 meteorologists plans were developed by the Weather Bureau, c a l l i n g f o r f u l l upper a i r observations at a l l s t a t i o n s , and a broad program of special observa- t i o n s at L i t t l e America which included geochemical and r a d i a t i o n measurements. Dr. He r f r i e d Hoinkes, U n i v e r s i t y of Innsbruck, was i n v i t e d to conduct a program of r a d i a - t i o n and micrometeorological studies at L i t t l e America i n the f i r s t year. This work was continued during the second year by Paul Dalryraple, USQMC, at the South Pole. Weather Bureau s p e c i a l i s t s assisted i n the design of a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the launching f a c i l i t i e s and radar domes. The Panel discussed these plans i n the e a r l y meetings and accepted the recommendations of a working group appointed to study s t a f f i n g , equipment, and observational d e t a i l s . 7. High A l t i t u d e Balloon Program. Through the cooperation of the service represen- t a t i v e s , i nformation was obtained on experimental 800- and 1,100-gram balloons, which were being tested f o r h i g h - a l t i t u d e performance. I t was decided that the 1,100-gram balloon would be too d i f f i c u l t to handle, and that the p o s s i b i l i t y of rough t r e a t - ment during launching would o f f s e t any advantage. The costs of the 800-gram balloon were such t h a t i t could not be supplied to a l l s t a t i o n s f o r both soundings. I n view of t h i s , and also the f a c t t h a t the 600-gram balloon had been improved, the Panel ac- cepted the Weather Bureau's proposal to use the 800-gram balloon only f o r the 1200 Z sounding at two-thirds of the Weather Bureau s t a t i o n s . The U.S. A i r Force would con- tinue to use the 800-gram balloon f o r a l l soundings. 325

METEOROLOGY 8. Geochemistry Program. The Panel approved the m o d i f i c a t i o n of several Dobson spec- trophotometers so that they could be used at night i n the hope of obtaining t o t a l ozone measurements i n the polar winter. The Weather Bureau contributed to the ozone program several s t a t i o n s where surface ozone was measured by an apparatus designed by V.H. Regener, i n v o l v i n g automatic chemical t i t r a t i o n . The Panel also approved plans drawn up by the Working Group on Geochemistry (see Chapter 5 - OCEANOGRAPHY) f o r the a i r sampling program f o r measurement of carbon-dioxide concentration. The geochemical programs at A r c t i c D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n B (T-3, or Fletcher's Ice Island) and at the USWB's Mauna Loa Observatory (11,000' a l t i t u d e ) , near H i l o , Hawaii, were discussed and ap- proved by the Panel. Several proposals had been made to the Panel f o r chemical analysis of rainwater. Dr. White reported on the program being sponsored by GRD under the d i r e c t i o n o f C. Junge. I t was decided that owing to u n a v a i l a b i l i t y of funds and i n view of the act i v e GRD program, new work m t h i s area should not be recommended to the USNC. 9. Earth Albedo. Early i n the planning stage a proposal was made by the Lowell Ob- servatory of F l a g s t a f f f o r determination of glo b a l albedo by observing earthshine on the moon. This problem had also been r e f e r r e d by CSAGI to the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Astron- omical Union f o r t h e i r suggestion. A. Danjon pointed out the d i f f i c u l t i e s of allowing f o r atmospheric e f f e c t s and suggested that a d i f f e r e n t i a l photometer, which he had de- veloped, would eliminate a l l e f f e c t s of the earth's atmosphere. This program was ac- cepted by CSAGI and the USNC asked appropriate panels to consider whether such a pro- gram could be undertaken. I n the meantime, plans had developed f o r the establishment of p r e c i s i o n o p t i c a l s a t e l l i t e t r a c k i n g observatories, under the supervision of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. I t was f e l t t h a t these locations would be suit a b l e f o r observations of the lunar e a r t h l i t crescent using the Danjon d i f f e r e n t i a l photometry inasmuch as tr a i n e d personnel would be already a v a i l a b l e . Accordingly, SAO prepared a pr o j e c t proposal that was accepted by the Panel. 10. Other Experiments. Several proposals on other areas of meteorological research (atmospheric e l e c t r i c i t y , determination of high l e v e l wind using cameras on constant l e v e l balloons, aerosol i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , etc.) were reviewed by the Panel. Although the Panel considered these proposals as worthy of support on t h e i r inherent m e r i t , i t was f e l t t hat inasmuch as these areas were by-and-large r e c e i v i n g support from other sources, and were not r e l a t e d t o the h i g h - p r i o r i t y recommendations of CSAGI, they could not be recommended to the USNC f o r special consideration as they would r e q u i r e funds i n excess of that a l l o c a t e d to Che meteorology program. The Panel also declined to recommend expenditure of funds to supply radiosonde expendable supplies to Dr. Scher- hag, B e r l i n , f o r use m studying the anomalous spring upper-air warming; the Panel sup- ported the p r i n c i p l e of t h i s research and expressed the hope that the supplies could be made av a i l a b l e from another source. 11. World Map. The CSAGI had recommended th a t three maps be prepared f o r the IGY period, covering the two hemispheres and a separate map f o r the e q u a t o r i a l regions; the U.S. accepted r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the northern hemisphere map. The Panel discussed t h i s work and approved the Weather Bureau's plans. There was discussion of the de- si r e d l e v e l s ( i . e . , 700 or 500 mb) and the CSAGI f i n a l l y s e t t l e d on the 500 mb l e v e l , i n a d d i t i o n to the surface maps. (The Federal Republic of Germany undertook the pre- pa r a t i o n of the e q u a t o r i a l section and the Union of South A f r i c a the southern hemi- sphere section.) 12. Meteorological Reconnaissance F l i g h t s . The Ad Hoc Committee on A i r c r a f t Recon- naissance Observations recommended that l e v e l f l i g h t s be obtained and t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n should be obtained on plans of f l i g h t s of other countries. A map was presented to the Panel showing routes t h a t were believed to be op e r a t i o n a l , f e a s i b l e and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y desirable. 326

METEOROLOGY I t was noted that i n the program of the Union of South A f r i c a , plans were s t a r t e d f o r twenty-four f l i g h t s southwest from the Cape. The Panel discussed the proposed U.S. tracks and suggested adding a tra c k south-southwest, as f a r as possible, from southern C a l i f o r n i a during September and December 1958. The Ad Hoc Committee recommended lev e l s of 500 mb f o r f l i g h t s outside the e q u a t o r i a l regions and added th a t f l i g h t s should also be made at 300 mb, i f possible and, i f not, then at 700 mb. I t was agreed t h a t the most important information i n the e q u a t o r i a l region would be obtained by low or very high l e v e l f l i g h t s , accordingly, 700 mb was designated as f i r s t p r i o r i t y , 300 mb sec- ond, and 500 mb t h i r d . The Panel recommended to the USNC tha t the program be submitted to the A i r Force, i n d i c a t i n g the d e s i r a b i l i t y of undertaking the program and requesting the A i r Force to advise the extent to which the program could be c a r r i e d out. This recommendation was accepted by the USNC and a l e t t e r was addressed to the A i r Force. An i n q u i r y was also addressed to CSAGI f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on plans of other countries. The rep l y from the A i r Force ind i c a t e d that some of the proposed program could be undertaken. The A i r Weather Service, f o r example, could plan f l i g h t s from C a l i f o r n i a and Hawaii. The pos- s i b i l i t y of f l i g h t s along c e r t a i n meridians or from Puerto Rico was also i n v e s t i g a t e d . I t f i n a l l y turned out th a t SAC flew several IGY missions during the World Meteorolo- g i c a l I n t e r v a l s from Puerto Rico, and showed ent h u s i a s t i c i n t e r e s t i n cooperating w i t h the IGY program. The Panel suggested that a l e t t e r of appreciation be prepared f o r the cooperation of SAC. 13. Meteorological Reports from Transport A i r c r a f t . The Working Group on A i r c r a f t Reports recommended that l e t t e r s be addressed to the Department of Defense and Trans- port Association of America to i n i t i a t e the program, and made suggestions as to the format of report forms and the elements to be reported. I t was also suggested t h a t the I n s t i t u t e f o r Navigation's o f f e r to undertaken c e r t a i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s be accepted. The Panel accepted the group's report and discussed the f e a s i b i l i t y of obtainin g i n - formation i n a d d i t i o n to th a t proposed. I t was f i n a l l y decided that many of the spe- c i a l observations might be too subjective and the program would be more successful i f kept simple. Replies from the agencies mentioned above indi c a t e d that they would cooperate but i t had t o be on a non-interference basis. This meant, i n e f f e c t , that only standard forms could be f i l l e d out and that special observations could not be made. I t was r e - commended th a t the program consist of ( i ) special e f f o r t s during the WMI's to c o l l e c t a l l weather information recorded on standard forms by transport a i r c r a f t , i n c l u d i n g f l i g h t logs of domestic a i r c r a f t , and ( i i ) during one p a r t i c u l a r WMI to record temper- ature on special charts to provide continuous h o r i z o n t a l soundings of temperature, and request t h a t temperatures be recorded whenever there was a change and not merely on a ro u t i n e time basis. I t was suggested t h a t the WMI f o r t h i s p a rt of the proposal be March 1958. The Panel accepted t h i s report w i t h the m o d i f i c a t i o n t h a t part ( l i ) be extended t o other areas where p r a c t i c a l and that a i r c a r r i e r s m other countries be i n v i t e d through CSAGI to p a r t i c i p a t e . 14. Nuclear Radiation. A proposal was presented from the Netherlands to include i n the IGY a program measurement of n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n the atmos- phere. The Panel discussed meteorological i m p l i c a t i o n s . (For d e t a i l s of t h i s pro- gram see Chapter 15 - NUCLEAR RADIATION). 15. Manuals. I n preparation f o r the discussions at the t h i r d CSAGI meeting, the Panel recommended that the manuals prepared by the Weather Bureau f o r various aspects of the program be used. 16. Data P u b l i c a t i o n and Exchange. The Ad Hoc Group on I n t e r n a t i o n a l Exchange of Meteorological Data made a study of t h i s problem and made a series of recommendations to the Panel. These included d e t a i l s on times of observations, elements to be reported. 327

METEOROLOGY form of r e p o r t i n g , and time schedule of exchange. The Panel accepted these recommenda- tions and requested one minor m o d i f i c a t i o n . As i t developed, the WMO and CSAGI evolved plans that d i f f e r e d somewhat i n d e t a i l . I t was also decided by CSAGI to make meteoro- l o g i c a l data a v a i l a b l e , i n the WMO pentade system, on microcards. The Panel at l a t e r meetings discussed these matters but made no recommendations contrary to the CSAGI plan. 17. S a t e l l i t e Meteorology. When the Technical Panel on the Earth S a t e l l i t e was es- tablished and t e n t a t i v e plans announced f o r the s a t e l l i t e program, the Meteorology Panel discussed meteorological experiments which might be undertaken. A r e s o l u t i o n was passed c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n to the important c o n t r i b u t i o n s a t e l l i t e observations could make to meteorology. 18. Data Reduction. The Weather Bureau proposed to the Panel several p r o j e c t s to or- ganize and c o l l a t e c e r t a i n meteorological data ( a l l a v a i l a b l e synoptic data f o r l e v e l s above 100 mb and c e r t a i n geochemical observations such as O3 and CO2) so that i t would be more useful and accessible t o research workers. These were approved by the Panel which also approved a proj e c t to process a n t a r c t i c and a r c t i c data to supply i t m the correct format to WMO, as World Data Center C f o r Meteorology. 19. IGY World Data Center A - Meteorology. The Panel was informed that the USNC had designated the National Weather Records Center at A s h e v i l l e , N.C., as the meteorology sub-center of WDC-A. The Panel discussed the a v a i l a b i l i t y of IGY data on microcards and recommended that at least two sets of data, i n a d d i t i o n to the set the USWB w i l l maintain m i t s l i b r a r y at Suitland, be purchased, one f o r r e t e n t i o n at A s h e v i l l e and the other t o be avai l a b l e on loan by WDCA to i n s t i t u t i o n s outside the Washington area. C. Project Objectives and Results 1. Summary of Program. The meteorology program was designed t o increase knowledge of the s t r u c t u r e and motions of the atmosphere. The height of ae r o l o g i c a l soundings was i n - creased, s t r a t e g i c new st a t i o n s i n the southern hemisphere were established, i n coop- e r a t i o n w i t h other countries i n order to strengthen the 70°-80°W pole-to-pole chain; stat i o n s were established on d r i f t i n g ice f l o e s i n the A r c t i c , geochemical, solar r a - d i a t i o n and ozone measurements were made at many st a t i o n s i n the U.S. and i n the A r c t i c and A n t a r c t i c . 2. Order of Pro.iect Description. The proj e c t s that are described i n the f o l l o w i n g pages are i n numerical order t o correspond w i t h the o r i g i n a l formulation of the program. 3. Cancelled Proiects. Former p r o j e c t s bearing the f o l l o w i n g numbers were eliminated from the program or combined w i t h other p r o j e c t s . 8.5, 8.6 and 8.8. 328

METEOROLOGY P r o j e c t 8.1 - Meteorology Data Reduction and Organization for Microcard Dissemination 1. Ob.iectives. Under t h i s p r o j e c t a t the N a t i o n a l Weather Records Center (NWRC), A s h e v i l l e , N.C., the following a c t i v i t i e s were included: a. Processing of data to the necessary standards from s p e c i a l IGY s t a t i o n s and from s t a t i o n s not o r d i n a r i l y processed. T h i s function included the processing of raob and other data from U.S. IGY s t a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c and A n t a r c t i c i n a form s u i t a b l e for reproduction on microcards by World Data Center A - Meteorology. The work r e - quired small a d d i t i o n s to the s t a f f and machine r e n t a l . b. P r e p a r a t i o n of l i s t i n g s of s e l e c t e d synoptic s u r f a c e and upper a i r data from the r e g u l a r network of the United S t a t e s and possessions, and from any other c o u n t r i e s for which the U.S. had agreed to prepare l i s t i n g s f or World Data Center A - Meteorology. c. C o l l e c t i o n and f i l i n g of a l l other synoptic, i r r e g u l a r , and autographic meteor- o l o g i c a l observations taken by U.S. operated s t a t i o n s during the IGY. Some of these data, for example the autographic records, low l e v e l wind measurements, and s p e c i a l r a d i a t i v e measurements made at a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s , r e q u i r e d processing, documenting, and m i c r o - f l i m i n g i n excess of the normal work load at NWRC. 2. Operations. I n compliance w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s i s s u e d by the WMO, Geneva, t a b u l a t i o n paper formats were designed i n order that the v a r i o u s types of meteorological data could be l i s t e d by machine processes. These forms include Form 1, Surface Synoptic - Land Form 2, Surface Synoptic - Sea Form 3, Radiosonde, Rawinsonde Form 4, Upper-Winds Form R-0, R a d i a t i o n Instruments Form R-1, Regular D a i l y R a d i a t i o n Values Form E-1, Evaporation and T r a n s p i r a t i o n , D a i l y Form E-3, Evaporation S t a t i o n D e s c r i p t i o n Data from the approximately 100 r e g u l a r U.S. s t a t i o n s and from the s p e c i a l IGY s t a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c and A n t a r c t i c were processed. I n ad d i t i o n , approximately 25,000 miscellaneous forms for s t a t i o n s not included m the r e g u l a r submission but operated c o o p e r a t i v e l y by the U.S. i n the A r c t i c , A n t a r c t i c , South America, Caribbean, Green- land, Europe, A f r i c a , and A s i a were prepared and submitted to the WMO. 3. Personnel. T h i s p r o j e c t was under the s u p e r v i s i o n of Dr. H.E. Landsberg and W.M. McMurray, U.S. Weather Bureau. 4. Data. A l l data processed have been submitted to the IGY World Data Center C (WMO), placed a l s o i n the WDC-A (U.S.), and sent to WDC-B (U.S.S.R.). 5. Bibliography. U.S. Weather Bureau. IGY World Weather Maps. Part I , Northern Hemisphere. Sea L e v e l and 50 0 - M i l l i b a r C h a r t s . J u l y 1957 to December 1958, i n c l u s i v e . Wash- ington, D.C. U.S. Weather Bureau. D a i l y A e r o l o g i c a l Cross S e c t i o n s Pole to Pole Along Meridian 75°W for the IGY Period. Washington, D.C. 1962, 1963. 329

METEOROLOGY U.S. Weather Bureau. Monthly Mean Ae r o l o g i c a l Cross Sections Pole to Pole Along Meridian 75°W f o r the IGY Period. Washington, D.C. 1961. H.E. Landsberg: "Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface." Solar Energy, v o l . 5, no. 3, July-September 1961. Wi l l i a m M. McMurray: "The Zonal Wind F i e l d Along 80°W f o r the IGY Period and Northern Hemisphere Anomalies of Wind and Temperature." U.S. Weather Bureau Monthly Weather Review, vol.89, no. 12, December 1961. Wi l l i a m M. McMurray: "IGY; Meteorological Data on Microcards." National Aca- demy of Sciences, IGY General Report No. 9. June 1960. 330

METEOROLOGY Project 8.2 - A n t a r c t i c Meteorological Program 1. Obiectives. Under the d i r e c t i o n of the U.S. Weather Bureau, a complete upper a i r and surface meteorological observation program was conducted at three s t a t i o n s i n the A n t a r c t i c - L i t t l e America, Byrd S t a t i o n and Amundsen-Scott (South Pole) S t a t i o n , re- search meteorological s t a t i o n s , each w i t h one meteorologist, were established at Wilkes and E l l s w o r t h s t a t i o n s . One meteorologist also was assigned each year to H a l l e t t sta- t i o n , operated j o i n t l y by the United States and New Zealand, i n 1957 t h i s meteorologist was also s t a t i o n s c i e n t i f i c leader. Standard Weather Bureau metorological instruments were employed at a l l s t a t i o n s plus some special instruments f o r the measurement of albedo, heat f l u x , sky brightness, temperature and wind gradients, atmospheric r a d i o - a c t i v i t y , carbon dioxide and ozone. The U.S. Navy supplied l o g i s t i c support at a l l U.S. s t a t i o n s , and also provided personnel and equipment f o r the surface and upper a i r observations at Wilkes, E l l s w o r t h and H a l l e t t s t a t i o n s , as w e l l as at the U.S. Navy operated McMurdo Sound s t a t i o n . 2. Operations. The USNC-IGY a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s were located so as to f i l l out the i n t e r n a t i o n a l network of meteorological s t a t i o n s i n the A n t a r c t i c , Rawinsonde sound- ings were made twice d a i l y and surface synoptic observations were made at three-hourly i n t e r v a l s . These observations were transmitted by radio to the A n t a r c t i c Weather Cen- t r a l . For the f i r s t time i t was possible to draw meteorological charts of the e n t i r e a n t a r c t i c continent using actual observations. The r e g u l a r l y scheduled observations, both surface and upper a i r , and the continuously recorded data provided much new and valuable information f o r a v a r i e t y of geophysical i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . 3. Personnel. This work was organized under the cognizance of Harry Wexler, D i r e c t o r of Meteorological Research, USWB, Paul A. Humphrey was the a n t a r c t i c p r o j e c t leader and supervised the i n s t a l l a t i o n and operation of the s t a t i o n s . Meteorologists i n charge i n the A n t a r c t i c were as follows: 1957, Ben W. H a r l i n , 1958, W i l l i a m S. Weyant. H e r f r i e d C. Hoinkes, U n i v e r s i t y of Innsbruck, was a guest s c i e n t i s t at L i t t l e America i n 1957/58, where he undertook a comprehensive r a d i a t i o n program. Paul C. Dalrymple, U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps, c a r r i e d out a microraeteorological program at L i t t l e America i n 1957 and at Amundsen-Scott i n 1958. 4. Data. A l l data from the a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s have been processed (under Project 8.1) and submitted to the IGY World Data Centers. 5. Results. While t h i s was p r i m a r i l y a data-gathering p r o j e c t , and analysis of data was supported i n other p r o j e c t s , many reports and papers prepared by USWB and other s c i e n t i s t s have been published, and an understanding of the atmospheric behavior of the a n t a r c t i c regions i s emerging. The surface, upper-air, r a d i a t i o n , ozone and car- bon dioxide data are l i s t e d i n the catalogs published by World Data Center A (Meteor- ology) at A s h e v i l l e , North Carolina, which serves as one rep o s i t o r y f o r the data. A complete t a b u l a t i o n of the observational program i s given i n Table I . Many reports and papers based on the IGY a n t a r c t i c meteorological data are l i s t e d m the f o l l o w i n g section. 331

METEOROLOGY TABLE I USNC/IGY A n t a r c t i c Meteorological Program 1957 - 1958 Stat i o n Observation Surface, 3-hourly Upper-air, twice d a i l y T o t a l solar and sky r a d i a t i o n Reflected solar r a d i a t i o n L i t t l e South McMurdo America Byrd E l l s w o r t h H a l l e t t Pole Wilkes Normal incidence solar r a d i a t i o n Net r a d i a t i o n T o t a l Ozone Surface Ozone Atmospheric r a d i o a c t i v i t y Carbon Dioxide A i r samples Sky I l l u m i n a t i o n Sunshine Sub-surface temperature Low-level wind and temperature p r o f 1 l e Snow C r y s t a l Replica P r e c i p i t a t i o n samples + + + + + + + + + + + Note. + observations completed - no observations a 1957 b 1958 332

METEOROLOGY 6. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at S c i e n t i f i c Meetings. Symposium on A n t a r c t i c Research, Wellington. New Zealand. February 1958. J.A. Mi r a b i t o "Operations Forecasting i n the A n t a r c t i c . " J. Shear "Gale Forecasting on Single S t a t i o n Data." R.C. Taylor. "Future Research i n the A n t a r c t i c . " IGY A n t a r c t i c Symposium, Buenos Aires. Argentina, November 1959. M.J. Rubin and E.G. Flowers "Mass, Heat and Water Vapor Transport Values f o r A n t a r c t i c a f o r June and December 1958." W.S. Weyant "Preliminary I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the Thermal Structure and I t s Changes i n the A n t a r c t i c Atmosphere." National Conference on Stratospheric Meteorology, Minneapolis, Minnesota, August-September 1959. M.J. Rubin "Advection i n the A n t a r c t i c Stratosphere." J o i n t AMS/AGU Spring Meeting, Washington. D.C., A p r i l 1964. E.G. Flowers' "Winter Radiation Measurements at the South Pole." W.S. Weyant• "Net Latent Heat Transport i n t o A n t a r c t i c a . " b. Published Papers. J. A l t , P. Astapenko and N.J. Ropar: "Some Aspects of the A n t a r c t i c Atmos- pheric C i r c u l a t i o n i n 1958." IGY General Report No. 4, National Academy of Sciences, World Data Center A, Washington, D.C., May 1959. N.S. Benes: "Inside A n t a r c t i c a No. 4." Weatherwise, v o l . 12, no. 5, October 1959, pp. 200-205. N.S. Benes: " S o i l Temperatures at Cape H a l l e t t , A n t a r c t i c a . " Monthly Weather Review. June 1960, pp. 223-228. T.H. Carpenter. "The D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Semidiurnal Pressure O s c i l l a t i o n on the A n t a r c t i c Continent." JGR, vol.68, no. 8, A p r i l 15, 1963, pp. 2211- 1215. G.D. Cartwright: "Meteorological Studies m the A n t a r c t i c . " IGY B u l l e t i n , National Academy of Sciences, No. 24, Washington, D.C., June 1959. G.D. Cartwright and M.J. Rubin "Inside A n t a r c t i c a No. 6 - Meteorology at Mirny." Weatherwise. v o l . 14, no. 3, June 1961, pp. 110-118. P.C. Dalrymple: South Pole Micrometeorology Program. Part I - Data Presen- t a t i o n . U.S. Army, Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center, Natick, Mass. Technical Report ES-2, October, 1961. 333

METEOROLOGY P.C. Dalrymple South Pole MicrometeoroloRv ProRratn, Part I I ' Data Analysis, U.S. Army, Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center, Natick, Mass. Technical Report ES-7, June, 1963. (Report No. 20, I n s t i t u t e of Polar Studies, Ohio State U n i v e r s i t y , Columbus, Ohio.) E.G. Flowers- "Inside A n t a r c t i c a No. 2 - Amundsen-Scott S t a t i o n . " Weather- wise, v o l . 11, no. 5, October 1958, pp. 166-171. E.G. Flowers "Weather at the U.S. An t a r c t i c Stations During 1957." Trans- actions, American Geophysical Union, v o l . 39, no. 5, October 1958, pp. 997-1001. E.G. Flowers "The Atmosphere from the Surface to 50 mb over the South Pole During 1957." A n t a r c t i c Meteorology: Proceedings of the Symposium Held m Melbourne. Pergamon Press, L t d . , 1960, pp. 453-462. E.G. Flowers and H. Hansen; "Comparison of Various Conditioning Methods f o r Rawinsonde Balloons." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 87, July 1959. E.G. Flowers and R. McCormick "World Record Low Temperature, South Pole, September 15, 1957." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 85, no. 11, November 1957. S. F r i t z et a l "Status of Special Studies i n Meteorology." Transactions, American Geophysical Union, v o l . 40, no. 1, March 1959, pp. 57-63. S. F r i t z "The Polar Whiteout." Weather, v o l . 12, no. 11, November 1957, pp. 345-349. S F r i t z "US-IGY Special Meteorological Studies." Geophysics and the IGY, Geophysical Monograph No, 2, American Geophysical Union, P u b l i c a t i o n 590, 1958. K.C. Giles and J.K. Angell: "A Southern Hemisphere Horizontal Sounding System- A Preliminary Study." B u l l e t i n of the AMS, v o l . 44, no. 11, November 1963, pp. 687-696. T . I . Gray "Report of the IGY Weather Central 1958." A n t a r c t i c Meteorology- Proceedings of the Symposium Held i n Melbourne. Pergamon Press L t d . , 1960, pp. 75-78. K.J. Hanson "A Case Study of the Explosive Stratospheric Warming Over the A n t a r c t i c , October, 1958." A n t a r c t i c Meteorology Proceedings of the Symposium Held i n Melbourne, Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960, pp. 128-137. K.J. Hanson "Some Aspects of the Radiant Energy Exchange on the South Polar Snowfield and A r c t i c Basin." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 89, May 1961, pp. 173-177. K.J. Hanson- "Radiation Measurements on the A n t a r c t i c Snowfield - A Prelim- inary Report." JGR, v o l . 65, no. 3, 1960, pp. 935-946. K.J. Hanson "Radiation Studies on the South Polar Snowfield." Transactions, American Geophysical Union, v o l . 41, no. 1, March 1960, pp. 75-81. K.J. Hanson and M.J. Rubin: "Heat Exchange at the Snow-Air I n t e r f a c e at the South Pole." JGR, v o l . 67, no. 9, August 1962, pp. 3415-3424. B.W. H a r l i n "Inside A n t a r c t i c a No. 1 - L i t t l e America." Weatherwise, v o l . 11, no. 4, August 1958, pp. 115-123. 334

METEOROLOGY H. Hoinkes: " A n t a r c t i c Meteorological Report." Science, v o l . 127, no. 3303, A p r i l 18, 1958, p. 867. H. Hoinkes: "Studies of Solar Radiation and Albedo i n the A n t a r c t i c . " Archiv fUr Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Ser. B, Vienna, v o l . 10, no. 2, 1960, pp. 175-181. J.D. Kangos: "An Analysis of Upper-Air Observations at McMurdo Sound, A n t a r c t i c a . " New York U n i v e r s i t y , College of Engineering, Research D i v i s i o n , S c i e n t i f i c Report No. 7. AFCRC-TN-59, 451, 1959. J.D. Kangos. "A Preliminary I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the Heat Flux from the Ocean to the Atmosphere i n the A n t a r c t i c Region." JGR, v o l . 65, no. 12, December 1960, pp. 4007-4012. W.S. Lanterman "Operational Meteorological Problems i n the A n t a r c t i c . " A n t a r c t i c Meteorology: Proceedings of the Symposium Held i n Melbourne, Pergamon Press L t d . , 1960, pp. 79-83. B.J. Lieske and J.A. Alvarez: " L i t t l e America Blizzard of May 1957." Ant- a r c t i c Meteorology: Proceedings of the Symposium Held i n Melbourne, Per- gamon Press L t d . , 1960, pp. 115-127. L.B. Lockhart et a l : "Atmospheric R a d i o a c t i v i t y Studies at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory." U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, NRL Report 5249, Dec. 19, 1959. R. McCormick: "An Estimate of the Minimum Possible Temperature at the South Pole." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 86, no. 1, January 1958. W.B. Moreland- "Inside A n t a r c t i c a No. 3 - The Weather Central at L i t t l e America." Weatherwise, v o l . 11, no. 6, December 1958, pp. 196-200. W.B. Morris and N.L. Peters; "Inside A n t a r c t i c a No. 5 - Byrd S t a t i o n . " Weatherwise, v o l . 13, no. 4, August 1960, pp. 162-165. F. Ostapoff: "A Cont r i b u t i o n to the Problem of the Drake Passage C i r c u l a t i o n . " Deep-Sea Research, v o l . 8, 1961, pp. 111-120. F. Ostapoff: "On the Mass Transport Through the Drake Passage." JGR. v o l . 65, no. 9, 1960, pp. 2861-2868. F. Ostapoff: "On the F r i c t i o n a l l y - I n d u c e d Transverse V e l o c i t y Components m the A n t a r c t i c Circumpolar Current." Deutschen Hydrographischen Z e i t s c h r i f t . v o l . 15, no. 3, 1962, pp. 103-113. F. Ostapoff: "The S a l i n i t y D i s t r i b u t i o n at 200 Meters and the A n t a r c t i c Frontal Zones. " Deutschen Hydrographischen Z e i t s c h r i f t . Vol. 15, no 4, 1962, pp. 133-142. F. Ostapoff: "A Note on V e r t i c a l Motions i n the Region of the A n t a r c t i c Circumpolar Current." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 91, nos. 10-12, October- December 1963, pp. 727-729. F. Ostapoff- " A n t a r c t i c Oceanography." Transactions. American Geophysical Union, v o l . 44, no. 2, June 1963, pp. 479-483. 335

METEOROLOGY F. Ostapoff: "Oceanographic Data D i s t r i b u t i o n Around A n t a r c t i c a . " SCAR B u l l e t i n , no. 14, May 1963, pp. 614-617. (pp 226-229). C.E. Palmer- "The Stratospheric Polar Vortex i n Winter." JGR, v o l . 64, no. 7, July 1959, pp. 749-764. C.E. Palmer and R.C. Taylor: "The Vernal Breakdown of the Stratospheric Cyclone over the South Pole." JGR, v o l . 65, no. 10, October 1960, pp. 3319- 3329. N.L. Peters "A B r i e f Summary of the Weather at Byrd S t a t i o n During 1957." Symposium on An t a r c t i c Research, Wellington, N.Z., February 18-22, 1958, Department of S c i e n t i f i c and I n d u s t r i a l Research, Wellington. V.I. Rastorguev and J.A. Alvarez: "Description of the A n t a r c t i c C i r c u l a t i o n Observed from A p r i l to November 1957." IGY General Report No. 1, National Academy of Sciences, World Data Center A, Washington, D.C., May 1958. N.J. Ropar and T . I . Gray: "Description of the 50-mb Patterns over A n t a r c t i c a i n 1958." Monthly Weather Review. Feb. 1961, pp. 45-52. M.J. Rubin- "Advection Across the A n t a r c t i c Boundary." A n t a r c t i c Meteorology: Proceedings of the Symposium Held i n Melbourne, Pergamon Press L t d . , 1960, pp. 378-393. M.J. Rubin "World Record Low Temperature." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 86, no. 6, June 1958. M.J. Rubin. "An Occurrence of Steam Fog i n A n t a r c t i c Waters." Weather, v o l . 13, no. 7, July 1958, pp. 235-238. M.J. Rubin: "Polar Atmosphere, A n t a r c t i c . " lUGG T r i e n n i a l Report, Trans- actions. American Geophysical Union, v o l . 41, no. 2, 1960. M.J. Rubin. "Atmospheric Advection and the A n t a r c t i c Mass and Heat Budget." A n t a r c t i c Research, Geophysical Monograph No. 7, 1962, pp. 149-159. M.J. Rubxn and M. Giovinetto- "Snow Accumulation i n Central West A n t a r c t i c a as Related to Atmospheric and Topographic Factors." JGR, v o l . 67, no. 13, 1962, pp. 5163-5170. M.J. Rubin "The A n t a r c t i c and the Weather." S c i e n t i f i c American, v o l . 207, no. 3, 1962, pp. 84-94. M.J. Rubin and W.S. Weyant: "The Mass and Heat Budget of the A n t a r c t i c Atmosphere." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 91, nos. 10-12, 1963, pp. 487-493. M.J. Rubin- "Polar Meteorology." Transactions, American Geophysical Union, v o l . 44, no. 2, June 1963, pp. 403-406. M.E. Sabbagh: "A Preliminary Regional Dynamic Climatology of the A n t a r c t i c Continent." Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Wisconsin, 1961. W. Schwerdtfeger: "The Seasonal V a r i a t i o n o f the Strength of the Southern Circumpolar Vortex." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 88, no. 6, June 1960, pp. 203-208. 336

METEOROLOGY N.A. Stepanova: "The Lowest Temperature i n A n t a r c t i c a . " Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 87, no. 4, A p r i l 1959, pp. 145-146. N.A. Stepanova: "On the Lowest Temperatures on Earth." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 86, no. 1, January 1958, pp. 6-10. N.A. Stepanova- "Minimum Temperatures i n the Lower Stratosphere." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 87, no. 7, July 1959, pp. 269-274. R.C. Taylor: "Mean Monthly Meridional Cross-Section of Temperature from the South Pole to the North Pole near 170°E - A Preliminary Note." A n t a r c t i c Meteorology Proceedings of the Symposium Held i n Melbourne, Pergamon Press Ltd . , 1960, pp. 162-167. R.C. Taylor. "The Topography of the 400°K I s e n t r o p i c Surface over A n t a r c t i c a : Spring 1957." IGY General Report Series, No. 14, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., June 1961. R.C. Taylor: "Upper-Air Temperatures at U.S. A n t a r c t i c Stations 1956-57." IGY General Report Series, No. 14, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., June 1961. H. Wexler: "Some Aspects of A n t a r c t i c Geophysics." T e l l u s , v o l . 10, no. 1, 1958. H. Wexler: "Geothermal Head and G l a c i a l Growth." Journal of Glaciology, v o l . 3, no. 25, 1959, pp. 420-425. H. Wexler- "Heating and Melting of F l o a t i n g Ice Shelves." Journal of Glaciology, v o l . 3, no. 27, March 1960, pp. 626-645. H. Wexler- "The A n t a r c t i c Convergence--or Divergence." Rossby Memorial Volume, 1959, pp. 107-120. H. Wexler: "Seasonal and Other Temperature Changes i n the A n t a r c t i c Atmos- phere." QJRMS, v o l . 85, no. 365, 1959, pp. 196-208. H. Wexler: "Note on the Lowest A n t a r c t i c Temperature Estimated by Shliakhov." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 87, no. 4, A p r i l 1959, p. 147. H. Wexler. "The Kernlose Winter i n A n t a r c t i c a . " Geophysica, v o l . 6, no. 3/4, H e l s i n k i , 1958, pp. 577-595. H. Wexler. "A Warming Trend at L i t t l e America, A n t a r c t i c a . " Weather, June 1959. H. Wexler: "Ice Budgets f o r A n t a r c t i c a and Changes m Sea-Level." Journal of Glaciology. v o l . 3, no. 29, 1961, pp. 867-872. H. Wexler: "Growth and Thermal Structure of the Deep Ice i n Byrd Land, A n t a r c t i c a . " Journal of Glaciology, v o l . 3, no. 30, October 1961, pp. 1075- 1087. H. Wexler and M.J. Rubin " A n t a r c t i c Meteorology." Section I (Heat and Water Budget of An t a r c t i c a ) of Science i n A n t a r c t i c a , Part I I , Physical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, 1959. 337

METEOROLOGY W.S. Weyant- "Ext r a p o l a t i o n to the 50-Mb Level from 100-Mb Data i n A n t a r c t i c a . " Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 88, no. 7, July 1960. J.R. Zimmerman: "Wilkes Climatology." A n t a r c t i c Meteorology. Proceedings of the Symposium Held i n Melbourne. Pergamon Press L t d . , 1960, pp. 415-422. USWB- "Clim a t o l o g i c a l Data f o r A n t a r c t i c Stations, July 1957-December 1958, USWB, Washington, D.C., 1962. 338

METEOROLOGY Project 8.3 - South American Upper A i r Observations 1. Objectives. This p r o j e c t of the U.S. Weather Bureau was organized i n order to com- pl e t e the North-South chain of st a t i o n s along the 80° W meridian, i n accordance w i t h CSAGI recommendations and i n cooperation w i t h the South American Meteorological Ser- vices concerned. 2. Operations. Agreements were reached w i t h government meteorological agencies i n South America f o r establishment of f i v e upper-air observing s t a t i o n s . The ground e- quipment f o r the st a t i o n s at Antofagasta, Quintero, and Puerto Montt, Chile, was the GMD-IA radio d i r e c t i o n a l f i n d i n g and tra c k i n g device. SCR-658 rawinsonde t r a c k i n g equipment was i n s t a l l e d at Guayaquil, Ecuador, and Lima, Peru. One resident e l e c t r o n i c technician f o r each s t a t i o n was r e c r u i t e d and tra i n e d by the Weather Bureau. Six ob- servers f o r each s t a t i o n were r e c r u i t e d by the l o c a l agencies and assigned f o r t r a i n - i n g , at t h e i r own expense, p r i o r to the commencement of the IGY. The st a t i o n s were put i n t o operation on the f o l l o w i n g schedule: Quintero, Chile June 3, 1957 Guayaquil, Ecuador July 3, 1957 Antofagasta, Chile July 17, 1957 Puerto Montt, Chile Aug. 14, 1957 Lima, Peru Sept. 30, 1957 Twice-daily upper a i r soundings were made at each s t a t i o n w i t h high performance balloons used at 1200 Z. These data were processed at each s t a t i o n and made ava i l a b l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y by r e g u l a r l y scheduled radio broadcasts, w i t h i n several hours a f t e r launching. 3. Personnel. Mr. Paul A. M i l l e r , U.S. Weather Bureau, supervised the organization and implementation of t h i s p r o j e c t . 4. Data. Data from these s t a t i o n s were processed (under Project 8.1) and have been submitted to the WDC's. 5. Results. Following the termination of the IGY, the upper-air programs at the f i v e s t a t i o n s were conducted f o r almost a year by the U.S. Weather Bureau under sponsorship of the A i r Weather Service of the A i r Force i n cooperation w i t h the South American Me- t e o r o l o g i c a l Services. Subsequently, a l l programs, w i t h the exception of that at Guay- a q u i l , were continued by the respective governments concerned. The data c o l l e c t e d during the IGY not only supported various research p r o j e c t s but contributed also to operational requirements of the various meteorological services and the requirements of a i r transport. The South American upper a i r s t a t i o n s , when combined w i t h the a d d i t i o n a l s t a t i o n s along or near the 70° - 80° W meridians i n the a n t a r c t i c region and i n the Northern Hemisphere, provides the basis f o r the con s t r u c t i o n of pole-to-pole a e r o l o g i c a l cross sections. With a grant from the National Science Foundation, the National Weather Re- cords Center of the Weather Bureau prepared f o r p u b l i c a t i o n d a i l y 70° - 80° W m e r i d i - onal cross sections f o r the IGY period to provide the basis f o r l a t e r use i n research on synoptic and dynamic meteorology. 339

METEOROLOGY Project 8.4 - High A l t i t u d e Rawinsonde Observations 1. Objectives. This p r o j e c t , i n accordance w i t h CSAGI recommendations that e f f o r t s be made to secure upper a i r observations to 30,000 meters, provided f o r e x t r a - p e r f o r - mance balloons f o r U.S. upper a i r s t a t i o n s . 2. Operations. Independent of the IGY, balloon manufacturers were developing higher performance balloons. A i r Force meteorologists had developed an 800-gram balloon (ML-391) which served as the basis, i n 1955, of a recommendation that an equivalent balloon be used at a l l U.S. IGY st a t i o n s . By the beginning of the IGY, however, the standard 600-gram balloon was improved. I n a d d i t i o n , i t was found that the special 800-gram balloon would be more expensive than a n t i c i p a t e d . Consequently, the f o l l o w - ing procedure was adopted: a. The improved 600-gram balloon would be used at a l l USWB st a t i o n s at the 0000 Z observations and at one-third of these s t a t i o n s at the 1200 Z observations. b. An improved performance 800-gram balloon would be used at two-thirds of the sta t i o n s at the 1200 Z observations, since t h i s was the observation time f o r the IGY World Weather Map program. Some Canadian s t a t i o n s also used the 800-gram balloon and supplies were also provided f o r some cooperative ( i . e . , i n South America) s t a t i o n s . A l l U.S. A i r Force s t a t i o n s continued to use the 800-gram balloon throughout the IGY period. 3. Results. The performances of the 600- and 800-gram balloons are summarized as follows- a. 600-gram Manufacturer's S p e c i f i c a t i o n s : 80% to have an average burst a l t i t u d e of 25,000 meters. I n i t i a l Tests: I n 400 f l i g h t s , 80% reached 26,500 m w i t h an average f o r a l l f l i g h t s of 25,460 m. Si l v e r H i l l Tests (630 f l i g h t s ) : 30% exceeded 26,200 m, 60% exceeded 24,900 m, average was 25,900 m. General IGY Sample (62 s t a t i o n s ) : 91.4% reached 100 mb, 81.8% reached 50 mb, 50.5% reached 25 mc, 3.5% reached 10 mb (approximately 31,000 m), average a l - t i t u d e was 24,410 m. b. 800-gram Manufacturer's S p e c i f i c a t i o n ; 807, to reach 27,500 m. I n i t i a l Tests: I n twenty-four f l i g h t s , the average a l t i t u d e reached was 32,670 m. Si l v e r H i l l Tests (95 daytime f l i g h t s ) : 30% exceeded 32,800 m, 60% exceeded 30,000 m, average was 31,900 m. Si l v e r H i l l Tests (95 nighttime f l i g h t s ) : 30% exceeded 31,500 m, 60% exceeded 30,700 m, average was 30,790 m. General IGY Sample (16 s t a t i o n s ) : 86.8% reached 100 mb, 76.0% reached 50 mb, 56.5% reached 25 mb, 13.6% reached 10 mb. j The general IGY sample analysis (supplied by the USWB's NWRC, Ashevi l l e ) shows performance that does not equal the S i l v e r H i l l t e s t s , c a r r i e d out under c a r e f u l l y con- t r o l l e d conditions. This i s undoubtedly due to the wide v a r i a t i o n , at f i e l d s t a t i o n s , of l o c a l conditions and care m preparing and handling the balloons. A s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t of t h i s program i s the preparation by the U.S. Weather Bureau Stratospheric Analysis Project of a series of 10 - m i l l i b a r charts covering the IGY 340

METEOROLOGY period. This series i s composed of thrice-monthly charts spaced at 10-day i n t e r v a l s , covering the region 10°W to 150°E and 10°-20°N to 90°N. I n the f i r s t volume of the series, there are t h i r t y - s i x charts drawn f o r the 1200 GMT observation of the 5th, 15th and 25th of each month from July 1957 to June 1958 i n c l u s i v e . The second volume extends the series from July 1958 through June 1959. 4. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. S. Teweles and F.G. Finger: "Contours and Isotherms at 10 M i l l i b a r s , July 1957-June 1958." F i f t h General Reunion, CSAGI, Moscow, 30 July- 9 August 1958. S. Teweles: "Some Var i a t i o n s i n the V e r t i c a l Structure and C i r c u l a t i o n of the Stratosphere." Meeting of the AAAS, Washington, D.C., December 29-30, 1958. S. Teweles and L. Rothenberg: "The Stratospheric Analysis P r o j e c t . " Con- ference on Stratospheric Meteorology - 179th National Meeting of the AMS, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 31 August-3 September 1959. S. Teweles and F.G. Finger: "Reduction of Diurnal V a r i a t i o n i n the Reported Temperatures and Heights of Stratospheric Constant-Pressure Surfaces." Conference on Stratospheric Meteorology - 179th National Meeting of the AMS, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 31 August-3 September 1959. b. Published Papers. U.S. Weather Bureau: " 1 0 - M i l l i b a r Synoptic Weather Maps, Three Times Monthly, July 1957-June 1958 of the IGY Period." USWB, December 1959, Washington, D.C. U.S. Weather Bureau. "Daily 100-Millibar and 5 0 - M i l l i b a r , and Three Times Monthly 3 0 - M i l l i b a r Synoptic Weather Maps." July 1957-December 1958, (one booklet f o r each month), USWB, Washington, D.C. U.S. Weather Bureau: "Daily A e r o l o g i c a l Cross Sections, Pole-to-Pole Along Meridian 75°W f o r the IGY Period." July 1957-December 1958, (one booklet f o r each month), USWB, Washington, D.C. S. Teweles and F.G. Finger "Reduction o f Diurna l V a r i a t i o n i n the Reported Temperatures and Heights of Stratospheric Constant-Pressure Surfaces." Journal of Meteorology, v o l . 17, no. 2, A p r i l 1960, pp. 177-194. S. Teweles, L. Rothenberg and F.G. Finger: "The C i r c u l a t i o n at the 10 mb Constant Pressure Surface over North America and Adjacent Ocean Areas." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 88, no. 4, pp. 137-150. 341

METEOROLOGY Project 8.7 - A n t a r c t i c Weather Central 1. Ob.iectives. This p r o j e c t was organized by the U.S. Weather Bureau i n response t o a CSAGI proposal t h a t an IGY A n t a r c t i c Weather Central be established and operated to provide a center at which current a n t a r c t i c and r e l a t e d meteorological data could be co l l e c t e d , analyzed, and disseminated to i n t e r e s t e d groups i n A n t a r c t i c a i t s e l f and elsewhere. I t was also considered desirable that the Weather Central be i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n operation. 2. Operations. The Weather Central was located at L i t t l e America. Personnel from other nations p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the IGY program i n the A n t a r c t i c were assigned duties (see Personnel). For the U.S. p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p r e l i m i n a r y work consisted of planning the analysis program, arranging f o r dissemination of data, and personnel recruitment and t r a i n i n g . Professional and subprofessional personnel were r e c r u i t e d through the Weather Bureau. Professional personnel were given i n d o c t r i n a t i o n and t r a i n i n g p r i o r to departure f o r the A n t a r c t i c . The t r a i n i n g program involved study of h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l , analysis of past and current southern hemisphere and a n t a r c t i c weather data, p r a c t i c e forecasts, and Weather Central operation under simulated a n t a r c t i c conditions as regards data a v a i l a b i l i t y . This program continued aboard ship between the United States and Ant- a r c t i c a . Maps and other supplies were provided by the United States Navy and the Weather Bureau from supplies already procured f o r the A n t a r c t i c . By means of the mother-daughter communication network weather data from a l l ant- a r c t i c s t a t i o n s were c o l l e c t e d and analyzed, data from other southern hemisphere me- te o r o l o g i c a l networks were received through e x i s t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l broadcasts as set up through the World Meteorological Organization. A n t a r c t i c surface synoptic reports and upper a i r data were broadcast to a l l s t a t i o n s at s i x hour i n t e r v a l s , i . e . , 0200, 0800, 1400, and 2000 GMT. I n a d d i t i o n , the broadcast contained the 0000 GMT surface analysis, p l a i n language r e p o r t s , and the 700 and 500-mb analyses. The Weather Central s t a f f prepared t w i c e - d a i l y analyses of upper-air charts at 700, 500 and 300 mb leve l s and four sea-level charts. The f o l l o w i n g charts were pre- pared. 1000/700 and 700/500-mb thickness, cross-sections f o r 9 a n t a r c t i c upper a i r s t a t i o n s , pseudo-adiabatic diagrams, hodographs and other miscellaneous charts and diagrams. A l l analyses, charts and diagrams are on m i c r o f i l m , they are on f i l e at the National Weather Records Center, A s h e v i l l e , North Carolina. 3. Personnel. Tne IGY A n t a r c t i c Weather Central p r o j e c t was organized by and d i r e c t e d by Morton J. Rubin of the U.S. Weather Bureau. L i s t e d below are senior personnel who pa r t i c i p a t e d i n the a c t i v i t i e s at L i t t l e America. 1956/1957 (Summer): Morton J. Rubin, USWB, Project Leader E.G. Edie, New Zealand representative 1957: W.B. Moreland, USWB, Meteorologist-in-Charge Jose A. Alvarez, Argentina representative Vladmir I . Rastorguev, USSR representative 1957/1958 (Summer): Harry van Loon, Union of South A f r i c a representative 342

METEOROLOGY 1958: T . I . Gray, J r . , USWB, Meteorologist-in-Charge Jean A l t , representative Pavel D. Astapenko, USSR representative K e i t h Morley, A u s t r a l i a n representative 4. Results. The primary r e s u l t of the IGY A n t a r c t i c Weather Central operation was the series of meteorological charts which, f o r the f i r s t time, permitted a d e s c r i p t i o n of the character of the a n t a r c t i c c i r c u l a t i o n and i t s day-to-day v a r i a t i o n s at the sur- face as w e l l as at higher levels i n the troposphere and stratosphere. Besides serving as the basis f o r the meteorological advisories f o r a l l a c t i v i t i e s i n A n t a r c t i c a , the series and the work at the center led to a number of s i g n i f i c a n t papers describing and i n t e r p r e t i n g hertofore unknown and even unsuspected features of the a n t a r c t i c atmos- phere. Some of the features upon which l i g h t was thrown are the monthly mean c i r c u - l a t i o n i n the troposphere and stratosphere, f r o n t a l systems, cyclonic c i r c u l a t i o n s , a n t i c y c l o n i c c i r c u l a t i o n s , tropospheric v a r i a t i o n s , stratospheric v a r i a t i o n s , and the j e t stream, both i n d i v i d u a l l y and as r e l a t e d to each other. The value of maintaining a continuing d a i l y analysis of a n t a r c t i c meteorological data was evident by the end of the IGY and the A n t a r c t i c Weather Central was trans- f e r r e d to Melbourne, A u s t r a l i a , as an i n t e r n a t i o n a l center operated by the A u s t r a l i a n Meteorological Bureau. At Melbourne increased emphasis i s being placed upon research i n the f i e l d of synoptic meteorology and d e s c r i p t i v e studies of the atmospheric c i r - c u l a t i o n . 5. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. Symposium on A n t a r c t i c Meteorology. Melbourne. February 1959. T. I . Gray, Jr.: "Report on the IGY Weather Central, 1958." B.L. Lieske, J. Alvarez: "The L i t t l e America B l i z z a r d of May 1957." J. A l t , P.D. Astapenko, N. Ropar, Jr . : "Some Aspects of A n t a r c t i c C i r c u l a t i o n 1958." R.C. Taylor: "Mean Monthly Meridional Cross-Sections of Temperature from the South Pole to the North Pole near 170°E - A Preliminary Note." W.B. Moreland: " A n t a r c t i c Stratospheric C i r c u l a t i o n and Ozone Observations." M.J. Rubin "Advection Across the A n t a r c t i c Boundary." A n t a r c t i c Symposium of Buenos Aires. November 1959. N.J. Ropar and T . I . Gray, J r . : "Description of the 50-mb Patterns Over An t a r c t i c a i n 1958." Conference on Stratospheric Meteorology. Minneapolis. 31 August - 3 September 1959. R.C. Taylor: "The Mean Fields of Height, Temperature and Wind Over Six An t a r c t i c Stations, and Some Inferences." 343

METEOROLOGY M.J. Rubin: "Advection and Temperature i n the A n t a r c t i c Stratosphere." Published Papers. V.I . Rastorguev, J.A. Alvarez; "Description of the A n t a r c t i c C i r c u l a t i o n Observed from A p r i l to November 1957 at the IGY A n t a r c t i c Weather Central, L i t t l e America S t a t i o n . " General Report Series No. 1, National Academy of Sciences, IGY World Data Center A, May 16, 1958, Washington, D.C. J. A l t , Paul Astapenko, N.J. Ropar, J r . ; "Some Aspects of the A n t a r c t i c C i r c u l a t i o n i n 1958." General Report Series, No. 4, IGY World Data Center A, National Academy of Sciences, May 11, 1959, Washington, D.C. W.B. Moreland: "Weather Central at 78°S." U.S. Weather Bureau, 1959, Washington, D.C. W.B. Moreland. "Inside A n t a r c t i c a No. 3 - The Weather Central at L i t t l e America." Weatherwise. v o l . 11, no. 6, pp. 196-200, 1958. C.E. Palmer and R.C. Taylor; "The Vernal Breakdown of the Stratospheric Cyclone Over the South Pole." JGR, v o l . 65, no. 10, 1960, pp. 3319-3329. 344

METEOROLOGY Project 8.9 - A r c t i c Basin Meteorology 1. Obiectives. This p r o j e c t was part of the s c i e n t i f i c work c a r r i e d out on two d r i f t - ing s t a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c Basin. One was Station A, b u i l t on the f l o e i c e ; the other. S t a t i o n B, was a large piece of tabular ice (Ice I s l a n d T-3, also c a l l e d Fletcher's Ice I s l a n d ) . The ob j e c t i v e was to extend the IGY program northward and complete cov- erage of the a r c t i c areas. 2. Operations. The U.S. A i r Force supplied l o g i s t i c support and f a c i l i t i e s f o r stand- ard synoptic surface and upper a i r observations. The U.S. Army furnished the equip- ment f o r taking upper a i r observations. Funds were required f o r special meteorological equipment and supplies, f o r the salary of one e l e c t r o n i c s technician at each s t a t i o n who was also t r a i n e d m making necessary meteorological observations, f o r three per- sonnel t r a i n e d i n upper a i r observations at S t a t i o n A, and f o r an assistant observer at S t a t i o n B. S c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of solar r a d i a t i o n , heat f l u x , and climate were being c a r r i e d out as w e l l as standard synoptic surface observations. I n a d d i t i o n , twice d a i l y upper a i r soundings were taken at S t a t i o n A, and twice d a i l y upper winds at Fletcher's Ice I s l a n d . Personnel were ro t a t e d every three months. The two e l e c t r o n i c s technicians not at the s t a t i o n s i n a given three-month period were located i n Washington, D.C, to sum- marize data c o l l e c t e d during the previous period. The three upper-air personnel not on S t a t i o n A i n a given period, as w e l l as the S t a t i o n B as s i s t a n t , reverted to em- ployment by the USWB. Stat i o n A was abandoned because of ice f r a c t u r e s i n e a r l y November, 1958. Person- nel and data were successfully evacuated, but a l l meteorological equipment and supplies and some personal items were abandoned. 3. Personnel. The meteorological program was organized and supervised by Ervin A. Volbrecht, USWB. 4. Data. Daily synoptic data were relayed by the usual i n t e r n a t i o n a l radio l i n k s . Data were processed and submitted (under Project 8.12) to the data centers. Monthly c l i m a t o l o g i c a l data were r o u t i n e l y published i n "Monthly Climatic Data f o r the World." Data have been used extensively i n preparation of the "U.S. Navy Marine Climatic Atlas of the World," Volume V I , A r c t i c Ocean. There has been free interchange of data be- tween the three primary p a r t i c i p a n t s , GRD, the U. of Washington and the USWB. 5. Results. A p u b l i c a t i o n summarizing the meteorological data, i n c l u d i n g selected frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s , taken at A r c t i c Ice Floe s t a t i o n s f o r the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geo- physical Year, July 1957 - December 1958 was prepared and published by the USWB. The data have been used q u i t e extensively by the Bureau i n preparing high l e v e l constant pressure charts of the Northern Hemisphere. 6. Bibliography. S. F r i t z - "On the A r c t i c Whiteout." Polar Atmosphere Symposium Part I Pergamon Press, 1958. K.J. Hanson: "Some Aspects of the Radiant Energy Exchange on the South Polar Snowfield and A r c t i c Basin." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 89, May 1961, pp. 173-177. 345

METEOROLOGY K.J. Hanson: "The Albedo of Sea Ice and Ice Islands i n the A r c t i c Ocean Basin." A r c t i c , v o l . 14, no. 3, 1961, pp. 188-196. H. Wexler and W.B. Moreland: "Winds and Temperatures i n the A r c t i c Stratosphere." Polar Atmosphere Symposium, Part I , Pergamon Press, 1958. USWB: "Cli m a t o l o g i c a l Data f o r A r c t i c Stations, July 1957 - December 1958." USWB, Washington, D.C, 1962. 346

METEOROLOGY Project 8.10 - Geochemical Measurements 1. Ob.iectlves. This p r o j e c t of the U.S. Weather Bureau provided f o r measurements of carbon-dioxide and ozone, two elements present i n the atmosphere m small amounts that are important f a c t o r s i n the atmospheric energy budget and may also be useful as tra c e r s . 2. Operations. The IGY funds were used f o r the m o d i f i c a t i o n , t e s t i n g and c a l i b r a t i o n of an i n f r a r e d gas analyzer which was operated at L i t t l e America, A n t a r c t i c a , and f o r an atmospheric sampling program using f i v e - l i t e r glass f l a s k s f o r c o l l e c t i o n purposes. At a n t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s and elsewhere a i r samples were c o l l e c t e d i n the f l a s k s , and these samples were analyzed f o r amounts of carbon dioxide and the r a t i o s of carbon and oxygen isotopes. Laboratory f a c i l i t i e s at Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography were used to make the analyses. Dr. CD. Keeling of the SIO was responsible f o r arrangements f o r equipment and supplies f o r the carbon dioxide program. Dr. V i c t o r Regener, Head, Department of Physics, the U n i v e r s i t y of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N.M., was responsible f o r the development of a chemically operated r e - corder of surface ozone f o r operation at L i t t l e America. As part of regular weather research, Dobson ozone spectrophotometers were used at a number of s t a t i o n s to deter- mine t o t a l atmospheric ozone. The i n f r a r e d gas analyzer and the surface ozone recorder were i n s t a l l e d and oper- ated at L i t t l e America. A i r samples i n fl a s k s were obtained at the IGY a n t a r c t i c sta- t i o n s : Amundsen-Scott, L i t t l e America, Wilkes. A d d i t i o n a l a i r samples were obtained world-wide. Samples were obtained along tracks of USAF Weather-Reconnaissance a i r - c r a f t . At the U.S. Weather Bureau's Mauna Loa Observatory, an i n f r a r e d carbon dioxide monitor was operated, other meteorological and geochemical observations, made possible by the exc e l l e n t l o c a t i o n and e x i s t i n g equipment, were undertaken. 3. Personnel. Paul A. Humphrey and Eugene Wilkms, U.S. Weather Bureau, worked w i t h C.D. Keeling, Scripps I n s t i t u t i o n of Oceanography, and other i n t e r e s t e d s c i e n t i s t s to organize the carbon-dioxide aspect of the p r o j e c t . S. F r i t z , USWB, supervised the planning of the ozone program. 4. Data. A l l the ozone data obtained during the IGY have been compiled and forwarded to the WDC's. A l l CO2 data worked up at Scripps have been published i n T e l l u s . v o l . 12, 1960. 5. Results. The IGY ozone data obtained i n the A n t a r c t i c have been studied i n terms of the atmospheric c i r c u l a t i o n patterns. Wind and ozone roses were constructed to examine the v a r i a t i o n of surface ozone w i t h wind d i r e c t i o n and i n a d d i t i o n the net meridional transport of surface ozone was computed f o r each month f o r a year. Based upon these r e s u l t s a model f o r atmospheric c i r c u l a t i o n i n the A n t a r c t i c has been pro- posed. The d e t a i l s of these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were published i n Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 88, no. 2, February 1960. The CO2 program has divulged a number of i n t e r e s t i n g features. F i r s t , a seasonal v a r i a t i o n i n the abundance i s found i n the Northern Hemisphere w i t h a maximum i n l a t e spring or ea r l y summer and a minimum i n l a t e summer or autumn. No s i m i l a r v a r i a t i o n i s as yet detectable i n the Southern Hemisphere. There i s also a suggestion that the Cl3 / c l 2 r a t i o also e x h i b i t s a seasonal trend. At the South Pole where there i s a long period of record, the concentration has increased at a ra t e of about 1.3 ppm. Over the northern P a c i f i c Ocean the increase appears to be about between 0.5 and 1.2 ppm. 347

METEOROLOGY 6. Bibliography. a. Papers Presented at Meetings. W.B. Moreland: " A n t a r c t i c Stratospheric C i r c u l a t i o n and Ozone Observations." Symposium on A n t a r c t i c Meteorology, Melbourne, Feb. 1959. S. Price: "Surface Ozone at Mauna Loa." Presented by S. F r i t z at I n t e r - n a t i o n a l Ozone Symposium m Oxford 1959. b. Published Papers. H. Wexler, W.B. Moreland, W.S. Weyant: "A Preliminary Report on Ozone Observations at L i t t l e America, A n t a r c t i c a . " Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 88, no. 2, February 1960, pp. 43-54. Saul Price and Jack C. Pales: "The Mauna Loa High A l t i t u d e Observatory." Monthly Weather Review, v o l . 87, no. 1, January 1959, pp. 1-14. CD. Keeling: "The Concentration of I s o t o p i c Abundances of Carbon Dioxide i n the Atmosphere." T e l l u s . v o l . 12, 1960, pp. 200-203. 348

METEOROLOGY Project 8.11 - Earth Albedo Observations 1. Obiectives. This p r o j e c t at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory was organ- ized i n order to obtain information important to the study of the earth's atmosphere. The r e f l e c t i v i t y (albedo) o f the planets gives valuable i n f o r m a t i o n about the nature of t h e i r atmospheres. For instance, the values of 0.06 and 0.64 f o r the albedo of Mercury and Venus, r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n d i c a t e t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t atmospheric conditions on these two planets. The albedo of the earth cannot be deduced from observations anal- ogous to those t h a t give the r e f l e c t i v e power of the other planets, because we cannot see the earth as a whole. I n d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n , however, i s given by the earthshine on the moon, such measurements are d i f f i c u l t because they can be made only near new moon at which time the moon can be seen only at low a l t i t u d e . Large corrections f o r atmospheric absorption and t w i l i g h t i l l u m i n a t i o n have then to be taken i n t o account. A. Danjon developed a d i f f e r e n t i a l method of observing earthshine on the moon which overcame the major part of these d i f f i c u l t i e s . 2. Operations. I t was planned to carry out measurement of the earth's albedo during the IGY from a network of s i x earth s a t e l l i t e o p t i c a l t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s using Danion's method. The albedo i s found from the brightness of the earthshine on the dark part of the moon's crescent disc. An instrument compared t h i s brightness w i t h that of the crescent adjacent to i t , properly reduced i n i n t e n s i t y , thereby e l i m i n a t i n g the need of taking i n t o account atmospheric absorption. Danjon extended h i s measurements to a large range i n phase-angle and has found i n d i c a t i o n s of seasonal changes i n the a l - bedo which he a t t r i b u t e d to f l u c t u a t i o n s i n meteorological conditions. To i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s question f u r t h e r , i t was necessary to take measurements from several s t a t i o n s widely d i s t r i b u t e d i n longitude and l a t i t u d e around the world. The IGY offered an exce l l e n t opportunity to carry out a comprehensive earth albedo program. The general atmospheric conditions were b e t t e r known than ever before. The s a t e l l i t e o p t i c a l observation s t a t i o n s would give appropriate d i s t r i b u t i o n i n geo- graphical p o s i t i o n and, since they were i n operation f o r the dur a t i o n of the IGY sa- t e l l i t e program, a s u f f i c i e n t amount of data could be obtained. Instruments were i n s t a l l e d at: Organ, New Mexico; Williams Bay, Wisconsin, Mt. Haleakala, Hawaii, Arequipa, Peru, Shiraz, I r a n , Woomera, A u s t r a l i a . 3. Personnel. The p r o j e c t was organized and c a r r i e d out under the supervision of J.A. Hynek and G.A. Van Biesbroeck. A f t e r January 1, 1960, the reduction and t r e a t - ment of observational m a t e r i a l have been conducted by G.A. Bakos (now at Dearborn Obs., Northwestern U.). Personnel at the Baker-Nunn p r e c i s i o n o p t i c a l s a t e l l i t e track- ing s t a t i o n s secured the observations. 4. Data. Observations have been processed at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa- t o r y , Cambridge, Mass. From each observation the albedo was calculated. The cloud cover data have been examined and charts o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n of clouds prepared. The l a t t e r r e f e r to the 1958 observations only. The earthshine observations have been car- r i e d out i n 1959 too. However, they could not be compared w i t h corresponding cloud cover d i s t r i b u t i o n because such data were not av a i l a b l e at the time of reduction of the observational m a t e r i a l . The reduced data i s contained m the report c i t e d below. 5. Results. Some preliminary r e s u l t s have been obtained and presented i n a paper be- fore the American Astronomical Society meeting i n Mexico C i t y . I t has been shown that seasonal changes of albedo occur as a r e s u l t of p r e v a i l i n g weather conditions over ex- tended regions. However, d a i l y v a r i a t i o n s of albedo are f a r more important and re- f l e c t the instantaneous weather p i c t u r e on the earth. The f i n a l r e s u l t s , e s s e n t i a l l y , confirm the preceding statements. The f i n a l r e p o r t , l i s t e d below, discusses the ac- curacy of the measurements, e f f e c t s of sky background and the reduction of observa- t i o n s . I t i s shown that the observations, p a r t i c u l a r l y the f l u c t u a t i o n , have to be 349

METEOROLOGY in t e r p r e t e d c a r e f u l l y and account must be taken of the general cloud cover and the mo- t i o n of the earth's hemisphere as seen from the moon i n order to r e l a t e the measured albedo and i t s f l u c t u a t i o n s to changes m cloud cover. The analysis suggests t h a t the brightness of earthshine i s most se n s i t i v e to f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the range between 30 to 50 percent of cloud cover. I t has been shown that the present network of meteorological s t a t i o n s i s inadequate f o r obtaining the g l o b a l weather p i c t u r e since the cloud cover s i t u a t i o n over the earth's water surface remains unknown. I t has been suggested that earthshine obser- vations be repeated now that a number of weather s a t e l l i t e s can p l o t the cloud cover adequately. 6. Bibliography. G.A. Bakos: "Measures of the Earthshine." Research i n Space Science. Sp. Rep. No. 162. Smithsonian I n s t . Astrophys. Obs., August 14, 1964. 350

METEOROLOGY Project 8.12 - Standardization of Dobson Ozone Spectrophotometers 1. Objectives. This p r o j e c t of the U.S. Weather Bureau was i n i t i a t e d i n order to secure i n t e r n a t i o n a l standardization o f the Dobson ozone spectrophotometer. 2. Operations. Experience w i t h these instruments has shown that they should be checked at i n t e r v a l s f o r t h e i r basic constants and f o r comparability w i t h each other. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Ozone Commission engaged an experienced p h y s i c i s t to v i s i t European st a t i o n s f o r standardization of instruments preceding the IGY. The U.S. Weather Bu- reau arranged f o r a p h y s i c i s t to v i s i t Oxford, England, f o r t r a i n i n g under Dr. G.M.B. Dobson and then f o r v i s i t s at U.S. st a t i o n s f o r standardization at the f o l l o w i n g locations: Bismarck, North Dakota Caribou, Maine Fort Worth, Texas Green Bay, Wisconsin Washington, D.C. Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii U n i v e r s i t y Park, Pa. 3. Personnel. The p r o j e c t was supervised at f i r s t by Sigmund F r i t z of the Weather Bureau and l a t e r by W.B, Moreland o f the Weather Bureau. The f i e l d work was c a r r i e d out by Augustus N. H i l l . 351

METEOROLOGY Project 8.13 - Reduction and Preparation f o r Dissemination of A r c t i c and A n t a r c t i c Meteorological Data 1. Objectives. This p r o j e c t undertaken by the National Weather Records Center of the U.S. Weather Bureau, was organized to hasten the completion of the IGY block of meteorological data by providing special handling of data from remote regions. 2. Operations. Data gathered m A n t a r c t i c a , i n c l u d i n g synoptic, rawinsonde and spe- c i a l i z e d observations, were returned at several widely spaced times beginning e a r l y i n 1958. I t was necessary f i r s t t o place the various observations i n correct chrono- l o g i c a l sequence. Second, the data had to be examined f o r accuracy and completeness, corrections being made where necessary. T h i r d , the data had to be summarized. Fourth, the summarized data had to be examined and c o r r e l a t e d , one type w i t h another, w i t h various synoptic charts and w i t h data gathered by other d i s c i p l i n e s to insure consis- tency. F i n a l l y , the data had to be prepared i n a form s u i t a b l e f o r p u b l i c a t i o n , d i s - t r i b u t i o n and subsequent use f o r research. I n the case of the a r c t i c meteorological data the problem of data reduction and checking was smaller since the plan of a l t e r n a t i n g two teams of meteorological per- sonnel on each s t a t i o n and of having the o f f i c i a l m charge of work m Washington dur- ing his i n t e r i m duty tours provide a ready means of keeping current. Some a d d i t i o n a l work was needed to place these data i n the same form as the A n t a r c t i c data. 3. Personnel. The work was supervised by H.E. Landsberg and W.M. McMurray, National Weather Records Center, USWB. 352