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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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RADIOACTIVE SOURCES

Applications and Alternative Technologies

Committee on Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies

Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board

Division on Earth and Life Studies

A Consensus Study Report of

images

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, DC
www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001

This activity was supported under award number 2091228 with National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that provided support for the project.

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-44791-1
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-44791-7
Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.17226/26121

Additional copies of this publication are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360, Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313; http://www.nap.edu.

Copyright 2021 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

Cover: Schematic representation of the operation of gamma, electron beam, and x-ray radiation sources in industrial sterilization. Courtesy of Thomas Kroc, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois. Reproduced and modified from Miller, 2003, with the permission of AIP Publishing.

Suggested citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26121.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
×

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The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, nongovernmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. John L. Anderson is president.

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was established in 1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president.

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent, objective analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions. The National Academies also encourage education and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
×

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Consensus Study Reports published by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine document the evidence-based consensus on the study’s statement of task by an authoring committee of experts. Reports typically include findings, conclusions, and recommendations based on information gathered by the committee and the committee’s deliberations. Each report has been subjected to a rigorous and independent peer-review process and it represents the position of the National Academies on the statement of task.

Proceedings published by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine chronicle the presentations and discussions at a workshop, symposium, or other event convened by the National Academies. The statements and opinions contained in proceedings are those of the participants and are not endorsed by other participants, the planning committee, or the National Academies.

For information about other products and activities of the National Academies, please visit www.nationalacademies.org/about/whatwedo.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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COMMITTEE ON RADIOACTIVE SOURCES: APPLICATIONS AND ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

BONNIE D. JENKINS (Chair1), Women of Color Advancing Peace and Security, Washington, DC

THOMAS K. KROC (Chair2), Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, Illinois

ROBERT A. BARI, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York

DEBORAH W. BRUNER (NAM), Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia

HUBERT K. FOY, African Center for Science and International Security, Accra, Ghana

PAMELA J. HENDERSON, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (retired), Reno, Nevada

P. ANDREW KARAM, Karam Consulting LLC, New York, New York

LINDA A. KROGER, University of California, Davis, Sacramento

MICHAEL O. McWILLIAMS, Stanford University (emeritus), Stanford, California

CATHLEEN (KATE) M. ROUGHAN, International Atomic Energy Agency (retired), Vienna, Austria

STEPHEN J. WAGNER, American Red Cross (retired), Rockville, Maryland

DAVID L. WEIMER, University of Wisconsin–Madison

JOHN A. WILLIAMSON, Florida Department of Health, Orlando

Staff

OURANIA KOSTI, Study Director (from October 2020)

CHARLES D. FERGUSON, Board Director and Study Director (until October 2020)

LAURA D. LLANOS, Finance Business Partner

MELISSA FRANKS, Senior Program Assistant

DARLENE GROS, Senior Program Assistant

___________________

1 Resigned from the committee effective January 13, 2021.

2 Served as the Chair of the committee effective January 21, 2021.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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NUCLEAR AND RADIATION STUDIES BOARD

GEORGE APOSTOLAKIS (Chair), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (emeritus), Los Angeles, California

JAMES A. BRINK (Vice Chair), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston

SALLY A. AMUNDSON, Columbia University, New York, New York

STEVEN M. BECKER, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia

AMY BERRINGTON DE GONZÁLEZ, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland

PAUL T. DICKMAN, Argonne National Laboratory, Washington, DC

BONNIE D. JENKINS,1 Women of Color Advancing Peace and Security, Washington, DC

STEPAN KALMYKOV, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow

ALLISON M. MACFARLANE, The George Washington University, Washington, DC

R. JULIAN PRESTON, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

HENRY D. ROYAL, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, Missouri

WILLIAM H. TOBEY, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Staff

CHARLES D. FERGUSON, Director

JENNIFER HEIMBERG, Senior Program Officer

OURANIA KOSTI, Senior Program Officer

LAURA D. LLANOS, Finance Business Partner

MELISSA FRANKS, Senior Program Assistant

DARLENE GROS, Senior Program Assistant

___________________

1 Resigned from the board effective January 13, 2021.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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Acknowledgments

A number of people and organizations contributed to the successful completion of this report. The committee wishes to thank the following:

Sandia National Laboratories (Sandia) and the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) sponsored the study and provided information on activities related to radiological security and promotion of alternative technologies. Jodi Lieberman (Sandia) served ably as the sponsor liaison to the committee and was effective in coordinating several information-gathering presentations for the committee including a virtual tour of Sandia. Dr. Michael Itamura and Dr. Holly Dockery also helped the committee receive the information it needed related to Sandia’s activities and analyses. Dr. Lance Garrison, Kristin Hirsch, and Malika Taalbi provided information to the committee on NNSA activities related to security of radioactive sources, promotion of alternative technologies, and removal and disposition of disused radioactive sources. Dr. Garrison also liaised the committee with other offices within NNSA and other Department of Energy (DOE) offices. We also like to thank Kristina Hatcher, DOE, for helping National Academies staff conceptualize the study and work plan.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission staff and particularly Margaret Cervera and George Smith, responded to the committee’s several requests for information related to the agency’s processes for securing and tracking radioactive sources.

The International Atomic Energy Agency staff collectively provided several hours of briefings to the committee on issues related to safety and security of radioactive sources and on alternative technologies used in medical, research, and commercial applications. The committee wants to particularly acknowledge Karen Christaki, Ian Gordon, Muhammad Khaliq, Hilaire Mansoux, Debbie van der Merwe, Joao Osso, Jr., Ronald Pacheco, Rui Cardoso Pereira, Rebecca Robbins, Alessia Maria Rodriguez y Baena, Jose Garcia Sainz, Valeriia Starovoitova, and Muhammad Waseem. Andrew Parker (retired) responded to the committee’s request for information on the sterile insect technique.

The Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) and specifically Eric Lemoine and Edmund Wong provided information on CNSC’s tracking system for radioactive sources.

Several medical professionals provided information to the committee on adoption of alternative technologies in low- and middle-income countries; specifically, Dr. Wondemagegnhu Tigeneh and Dr. Eskadmas Yinesu Belay, Black Lion Hospital, Ethiopia; Dr. Eric Addison, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Ghana; Dr. Edgar Ruiz, Dr. Angel Velarde, Dr. Vicky de Falla, Dr. Carlos Garcia, Dr. Javier Figueroa, Kirk Najera, Milton Ixquiac, and Franky Reyes, Liga Nacional Contra el Cancer/Instituto Nacional de Cancerologia, Guatemala; Dr. Taofeeq A.

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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Ige, National Hospital Abuja, Nigeria; Dr. Magatte Diagne, Aristide Hospital Dantec, Dakar, Senegal; and Mulape Kanduza, Cancer Diseases Hospital, and Prudence Katongo Mutale, National Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research, Zambia. We also want to thank Dr. Andrea Barleze and William Trinca.

Washington University in St. Louis medical professionals shared perspectives on the collaborative project to adopt intensity-modulated radiotherapy in Guatemala. They were Dr. Bin Cai, Dr. Hiram Gay, Dr. Lauren Henke, Eric Laugeman, Dr. Jeff Michalski, and Dr. Jacaranda van Rheenen.

John Miller, International Source Suppliers and Producers Association, and Paul Wynne, International Irradiation Association, arranged several industry briefings for the committee and provided their own perspectives.

Pierre Legoux, World Institute for Nuclear Security, also provided perspectives to the committee and invited a subgroup of the committee to two roundtable discussions organized by the institute.

Tyler Bernstein and Dr. Steven Krahn provided information on Zeno Power System’s next-generation radioisotope power system.

Cindy Tomlinson, American Society for Radiation Oncology, provided information on adoption of electronic brachytherapy in the United States.

Dr. Rajeswari (Raji) Pillai Rajagopalan, Observer Research Foundation, India, provided information on India’s development and use of vitrified cesium-137 for blood and food irradiation.

The committee also thanks the presenters and speakers who gave high-quality presentations during the public meetings as listed in Appendix B.

The committee is grateful to the staff of the Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board (NRSB) of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (the National Academies) for organizing and facilitating this study. Study director Dr. Ourania Kosti and board director Dr. Charles Ferguson organized the committee meetings and assisted the committee with collecting the information it needed to write its report. Melissa Franks and Darlene Gros managed the logistics of the meetings, report review, and publication. Additional National Academies staff assisted with report production: Eric Edkin, Division on Earth and Life Studies, assisted with figure design and Rebecca Morgan and Maya Thomas, National Academies Research Center, assisted with reference checking.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
×

Reviewers

This Consensus Study Report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in making each published report as sound as possible and to ensure that it meets the institutional standards for quality, objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.

We thank the following individuals for their review of this report:

Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations of this report nor did they see the final draft before its release. The review of this report was overseen by MARYELLEN GIGER (NAE), University of Chicago, and

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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RUTH E. McBURNEY, Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors. They were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with the standards of the National Academies and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content rests entirely with the authoring committee and the National Academies.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26121.
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Radioactive Sources: Applications and Alternative Technologies assesses the status of medical, research, sterilization, and other commercial applications of radioactive sources and alternative (nonradioisotopic) technologies in the United States and internationally. Focusing on Category 1, 2, and 3 sources, this report reviews the current state of these sources by application and reviews the current state of existing technologies on the market or under development that are or could be used to replace radioisotopic technologies in those applications. Radioactive Sources will support existing and future activities under the National Nuclear Security Administration Office of Radiological Security program to reduce the use of high-risk radiological materials in commercial applications.

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