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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Mitigation of Weldment Cracking in Steel Highway Structures Due to the Galvanizing Process. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26223.
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Page 71
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Mitigation of Weldment Cracking in Steel Highway Structures Due to the Galvanizing Process. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26223.
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Page 72
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Mitigation of Weldment Cracking in Steel Highway Structures Due to the Galvanizing Process. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26223.
×
Page 72
Page 73
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Mitigation of Weldment Cracking in Steel Highway Structures Due to the Galvanizing Process. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26223.
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70 AASHTO. (2015). LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals. Washington, DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. AASHTO. (2017). LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (8th ed.). American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Adonyi, Y. (2016). Final Report – University of Kansas Project. Longview, TX: LeTourneau University, Materials Joining Engineering Department. American Galvanizers Association (AGA). (2007). Galvanizing Survey. AGA. (2019). What Is Galvanizing? Retrieved October 2019 from www.galvanizeit.org/hot-dip-galvanizing/ what-is-galvanizing Aichinger, R., & Higgins, W. (2006, October 15-19). Toe Cracks in Base Plate Welds: 30 Yrs Later. In R. E. Nickerson (ed.), Electrical Transmission Line and Substation Structures: Structural Reliability in a Changing World. Birmingham, AL: American Society of Civil Engineers. Aoyama, M. (1994). Design and Construction of Hot-Dip Galvanized Bridges by the Japan Highway Public Corporation. Paper presented at The Second Asian-Pacific General Galvanizing Conference, Kobe, Japan. ASTM. (2007). A143: Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittlement of Hot-Dipped Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement. Conshohocken, PA: ASTM. ASTM. (2013a). A123: Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products. ASTM. ASTM. (2013b). E8: Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. ASTM. ASTM. (2015). A385: Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc Coatings (Hot-Dip). West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM. AWS. (2010). Structural Welding Code—Steel (22nd ed.). Miami, FL: American Welding Society. Barsom, J. M. (1971). Corrosion Fatigue Crack Propagation Below KIscc. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 3(1), 15–25. doi: 10.1016/0013-7944(71)90048-8 Beal, C., Kleber, X., Fabregue, D., & Bouzekri, M. (2012). Liquid Zinc Embrittlement of Twinning-Induced Plasticity Steel. Scripta Materialia, 66(12), 1030-1033. doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2011.12.040 Beldyk, R. M. (2004). Inspecting for Galvanization-Related Cracking in Steel Structures. Inspection Trends. Brahimi, S., Rajagopalan, S., Yue, S., & Szpunar, J. (2009). Effect of Surface Processing Variables on Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steel Fasteners Part 1: Hot Dip Galvanizing. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 48(3), 293-301. doi: 10.1179/cmq.2009.48.3.293 British Constructional Steelwork Association (BCSA). (2005). Galvanizing Structural Steelwork (Publication No. 40/05). BCSA and GA. British Standard (BS). (2009a). BS EN ISO 1461: Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and Steel Articles — Specifications and Test Methods. BS. (2009b). BS EN ISO 14713: Zinc Coatings — Guidelines and Recommendations for the Protection Against Corrosion of Iron and Steel in Structures — Part 2: Hot-Dip Galvanizing. Carpio, J., Casado, J. A., Álvarez, J. A., Méndez, D., & Gutiérrez-Solana, F. (2009). Environmental Factors in Failure During Structural Steel Hot-Dip Galvanizing. Engineering Failure Analysis, 16(2). Carpio, J., Casado, J. A., Alvarez, J. A., Mendez, D., & Gutierrez-Solana, F. (2010). Stress Corrosion Cracking of Structural Steels Immersed in Hot-Dip Galvanizing Baths. Engineering Failure Analysis, 17(1). doi: 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2008.11.005 Chang, K.-H., & Lee, C.-H. (2009). Finite Element Analysis of the Residual Stresses in T-Joint Fillet Welds Made of Similar and Dissimilar Steels. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 41(3-4), 250. References

References 71   Chang, B., Phares, B. M., Sarkar, P. P., & Wipf, T. J. (2009). Development of a Procedure for Fatigue Design of Slender Support Structures Subjected to Wind-Induced Vibration. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2131, 23-33. doi: 10.3141/2131-03 Clegg, R. E., & Jones, D. R. H. (1998). The Effect of Cold Work on the Liquid Metal Induced Embrittlement of Brass by Gallium. Paper presented at the Ninth International Conference on Fracture, Sydney, Australia. Cristol, A.-L., Balloy, D., Niclaeys, C., Quaegebuer, P., & Néel, L. (2012). Cracking of S235JR Cold-Deformed Steel During Galvanizing—Developing a Test to Evaluate and Predict the Effect of the Zinc Alloy Composi- tion. Journal of Surface Engineered Materials and Advanced Technology. DASt. (2009). DASt Richtlinie 022: Guideline for Hot-Dip-Zinc-Coating of Pre-Fabricated Load-Bearing Steel Components. Deutscher Ausschuss fur Stahlbau. Deutsche Norm (DN). (2009). DIN EN ISO 1461: Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings on Fabricated Iron and Steel Articles — Specifications and Test Methods: Deutsche Norm. Dugan, B. P. (1999). The Effect of Minor Elements in the Galvanizing Bath. Paper presented at the American Galvanizers Association, Baltimore, Maryland. Džupon, M., Falat, L., Slota, J., & Hvizdoš, P. (2013). Failure Analysis of Overhead Power Line Yoke Connector. Engineering Failure Analysis, 33, 66-74. doi: 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2013.04.024 Elboujdaini, M., Tyson, W. R., & Goodwin, F. E. (2004). Experiments On Delayed Failure During Galvaniz- ing Of Flame-Cut Structural Steels. Paper presented at the Structural Integrity and Fatigue, Brisbane, Australia. European General Galvanizers Association (EGGA). (2014). Controlling Liquid Metal Assisted Cracking During Galvanizing of Constructional Steelwork. https://www.egga.com/publications/controlling-liquid- metal-assisted-cracking-during-galvanizing-of-constructional-steelwork/ Feldmann, M., Pinger, T., Schäfer, D., Pope, R., Smith, W., Sedlacek, G., & Amorim Varum, H. (2010). Hot- Dip-Zinc-Coating of Prefabricated Structural Steel Components (JRC Scientific and Technical Reports). G. Sedlacek, M. Géradin, A. Pinto, H. Varum (Eds.) Luxembourg: Joint Research Centre-Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen. Feldmann, M. Pinger, T., Schäfer, D., & Sedlacek, G. (2009). New Rules in DASt-Richtlinie 022 for Avoiding Liquid Metal Assisted Cracking (LMAC) of Prefabricated Structural Steel Components During Hot-Dip Galvanizing. Steel Construction, 119-130. doi: 10.1002/stco.200910016 Feldmann, M., Pinger, T., & Tschickardt, D. (2006, June 11-14). Cracking in Large Steel Structures During Hot Dip Galvanizing [Edited proceedings]. Twenty-first International Galvanizing Conference, Naples, Italy. Organized by European General Galvanizers Association and Associazione Italiana Zincatura. Goyal, R., Dhonde, H. B., & Dawood, M. (2012). Fatigue Failure and Cracking in High Mast Poles. Houston, Texas: University of Houston, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Graville, B. (1975). The Principles of Cold Cracking Control in Welds. Montreal, Canada: The Dominion Bridge Company, Limited. Harte, A., Williams, D., & Grealish, F. (2004). A Coupled Temperature–Displacement Model for Predicting the Long-Term Performance of Offshore Pipeline Insulation Systems. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 155-156, 1242-1246. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2004.04.288 He, H., Liu, H., Zhu, C., Wei, P., & Sun, Z. (2018). Study of Rolling Contact Fatigue Behavior of a Wind Turbine Gear Based on Damage-Coupled Elastic-Plastic Model. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 141, 512-519. He, Q. Q., Zhang, Q. H., Liu, K. Q., & Chen, J. H. (2007). Fully Coupled Temperature-Displacement Simulation of H-Shape Metal Cogging. Journal of System Simulation, 1. Higgins, W. (2014). Weld Cracking in Galvanized Steel Structures. Valmont Industries, Inc. Huntington, A. K. (1912). The Effect of Temperatures Higher Than Atmospheric on Tensile Tests of Copper and Its Alloys, and a Comparison With Wrought Iron and Steel. Journal of the Institute of Metals, 8(126). James, M. N. (2008). Designing Against LMAC in Galvanised Steel Structures. Engineering Failure Analysis, 1051-1061. Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS). (2005). JIS G 3129: High Tensile Strength Steel for Tower Structural Purposes. Japanese Standards Association. JIS. (2007). JIS 8641: Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings. Japanese Standards Association. Judd, K. C. D. (2006). Zinc Solubility Measurements and Thermodynamic Evaluation of Zn-Pb-Bi Ternary System. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 45(1), 117-130. Katiforis, N. P., & Papadimitriou, G. (1996). Influence of Copper, Cadmium, and Tin Additions in the Galva- nizing Bath on the Structure, Thickness and Cracking Behaviour of the Galvanized Coatings. Surface & Coatings Technology, 185-195. Katzung, W., & Schulz, W.-D. (2005). Article on Hot Dip Galvanizing of Steel Structures - Origins of and Proposed Solutions to the Problem of Crack Formation. Stahlbau, 74(4).

72 Mitigation of Weldment Cracking in Steel Highway Structures Due to the Galvanizing Process Kikuchi, M., & Iezawa, T. (1981). “Liquid Metal Embrittlement Cracking of Steels in Liquid Zinc.” Lecture at Spring Meeting of the Shipbuilding Society of Japan. Kikuchi, M., & Iezawa, T. (1982). Effect of Stress-Concentration Factor on Liquid Metal Embrittlement Cracking of Steel in Molten Zinc. Journal of the Society of Materials Science, 31(352), 271-276. Kikuta, Y., Araki, T., Yoneda, M., & Uchikawa, K. (1986). Effect of Fabrication Procedure on Liquid Metal Embrittlement Cracking in Welded Steel Structures by Molten Zinc. Quarterly Journal of the Japan Welding Society, 4 (4), 747-753. doi: 10.2207/qjjws.4.747 Kinstler, T. (1991). Status Report on the Cracking of Copes in Galvanized Structural Beams [Limited and internal circulation ed.]. Metalplate Galvanizing, Inc. Kinstler, T. (2005). Current Knowledge of the Cracking of Steels During Galvanizing. Springville, Alabama: GalvaScience, LLC. Kleineck, J. R. (2011). Galvanizing Crack Formation at Base Plate to Shaft Welds of High Mast Illumination Poles (Graduate thesis). Retrieved from The University of Texas at Austin at http://hdl.handle.net/2152/ ETD-UT-2011-08-3966. Kominami, Y., Yano, K., Ishimoto, K., Terasaki, T., & Mukae, S. (1985). Effect of Welding Factors on the Strength of Welding Joint in the Molten Zinc: Liquid Metal Embrittlement of Welded Joint of Steel during Hot Dip Galvanizing (Report 1). Quarterly Journal of the Japan Welding Society, 3(2), 341-346. Kuklik, V. (2012). Post on the Issue of Safety of Steel Structures of Hot Dip Galvanized Structural Components. Procedia Engineering. Elsevier Ltd. Lieurade, H.-P. (1982). The Practice of Fatigue Tests. Pyc Edition. Paris. Ma, N., Ueda, Y., Murakawa, H., & Maeda, H. (1995). FEM Analysis of 3-D Welding Residual Stresses and Angular Distortion in T-Type Fillet Welds (Mechanics, Strength & Structural Design). Transactions of JWRI, 24, 115-122. Maass, P., & Peissker, P. (2011). Handbook of Hot-dip Galvanization (C. Ahner, Trans.). Morlenbach: Wiley-VCH. Magenes, L. (2011). Fatigue Assessment of High Mast Illumination Poles Using Field Measurements (Graduate thesis). Retrieved from The University of Texas at Austin at http://hdl.handle.net/2152/ETD-UT-2011- 08-3974. Masayoshi, H., Hiroaki, S., & Ken, M. (2007). Effect of Strong Shot Peening Cleaning and Hot Galvanizing on Fatigue Strength of Steel Welded Joint, Welding International, 23(5), 360-368. doi: 10.1080/09507110802542734 McDonald, R. D. (1975, January). Steel Embrittlement Problems Associated with Hot Dip Galvanizing – Causes, Mechanisms, Controls, and Selected References. Materials Performance, 14(1), 31-37. Mraz, L., & Lesay, J. (2009). Problems with reliability and safety of hot dip galvanized steel structures. Soldagem Insp., 14(2), 184-190. Nicholas, M. G., & Old, C. F. (1979). Liquid Metal Embrittlement. Journal of Materials Science, 14(1). Novak, S. R., & Rolfe, S. T. (1969). Modified WOL Specimen for KIscc Environmental Testing. Journal of Materials, 4(3), 701-728. Ocel, J. (2014). FHWA-HRT-14-066: Fatigue Testing of Galvanized and Ungalvanized Socket Connections (Federal Highway Administration Report). FHWA. Padhy, G. K., & Komizo, Y.-i. (2013). Diffusible Hydrogen in Steel Weldments. Transactions of Joining and Welding Research Institute (JWRI), 42(1). Perić, M., Tonković, Z., Rodić, A., Surjak, M., Garašić, I., Boras, I., & Srećko Š. (2014). Numerical Analysis and Experimental Investigation of Welding Residual Stresses and Distortions in a T-Joint Fillet Weld. Materials & Design, 53, 1052-1063. doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2013.08.011 Pilipenko, A. (2001). Computer Simulation of Residual Stress and Distortion of Thick Plates in Multielectrode Submerged Arc Welding: Their Mitigation Techniques (Doctoral thesis). Retrieved from NTNU at http:// hdl.handle.net/11250/231322 Poag, G., & Zervoudis, J. (2003). Influence of Various Parameters on Steel Cracking During Galvanization. Paper presented at the AGA TechForum, Kansas City, Missouri. Pool, C. S. (2010). Effect of Galvanization on the Fatigue Strength of High Mast Illumination Poles (Graduate thesis). Retrieved from The University of Texas at Austin at http://hdl.handle.net/2152/ETD-UT-2010- 05-1442 Richman, N. (2009). Fatigue Life Investigation of High Performance Mast Arm Base Plate Connections (Grad- uate thesis). Retrieved from The University of Texas at Austin at https://fsel.engr.utexas.edu/research/ publications/details/521135928 Roy, S., Park, Y. C., Sause, R., Fisher, J. W., & Kaufmann, E. J. (2011). NCHRP Web-Only Document 176: Cost-Effective Connection Details for Highway Sign, Luminaire, and Traffic Signal Structures. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. doi: 10.17226/22879 Rudd, W. J., Wen, S. W., Langenberg, P., Donnay, B., Voelling, A., Pinger, T. . . . Gutiérrez-Solana, F. (2008). Failure Mechanisms During Galvanising. Research Fund for Coal and Steel. Luxembourg: European Commission.

References 73   Sandelin, R. (1954). Embrittlement Characteristics of Different Types of Commercial Steels Resulting from the Hot Dip Galvanizing Process. Paper presented at the American Hot Dip Galvanizers Association Annual Meeting. Sedlacek, G., Dahl, W., Hoffmeister, B., Kühn, B., Feldman, M., Pinger, T., . . . Blum, M. (2004). Zur sichern Anwendung feuerverzinkter Strahlträger (On the Reliable Application of Hot Dip Zinc-Coated Steel Beams). Stahlbau, 73. Siddique, M., Abid, M., Junejo, H., & Mufti, R. (2005). 3-D Finite Element Simulation of Welding Residual Stresses in Pipe-Flange Joints: Effect of Welding Parameters. Materials Science Forum 490-491, 79-84. Switzerland: Trans Tech Publications. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.490-491.79 Simulia. (2018). Abaqus v2018 Documentation. Dassault Systemès. Stam, A. P. (2009). Fatigue Performance of Base Plate Connections Used in High Mast Lighting Towers. The Uni- versity of Texas at Austin. Stam, A., Richman, N.; Pool, C., Rios, C., Anderson, T., Frank, K. (2011). Fatigue Life of Steel Base Plate to Pole Connections for Traffic Structures. Austin: The University of Texas at Austin, Center for Transportation Research. Teng, T.-L., Fung, C.-P., Chang, P.-H., & Yang, W-C. (2001). Analysis of Residual Stresses and Distortions in T-Joint Fillet Welds. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, 78(8), 523-538. doi: 10.1016/S0308- 0161(01)00074-6 Tomoe Corporation. (2001). Zinc Assisted Cracking on Big Scale Steel Structures and Preventive Methods. Tomoe Research & Development, Ltd. The Welding Institute. (2019). Liquid Metal Embrittlement and Common Embrittling Couples [Webpage]. Retrieved October 2019 from https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/faq-what-is-liquid- metal-embrittlement-and-what-are-common-embrittling-metal-couples Vermeersch, M., De Waele, W., & Van Caenegem, N. (2011). LME Susceptibility of Galvanised Welded Struc- tures of High Strength Steels. Sustainable Construction and Design 2011, 442-447. Vervisch, A. (2009). Liquid Metal Embrittlement in the Heat Affected Zone of Welded High Strength Steel During Batch Hot Dip Galvanizing - Influence of Steel Composition and Microstructure (Graduate thesis). Ghent. Vincent, G., Bonasso, N., Lecomte, J. S., Colinet, B., Gay, B., & Esling, C. (2006). The Relationship Between the Fracture Toughness and Grain Boundary Characteristics in Hot-Dip Galvanized Zinc Coatings. Journal of Material Science. doi: 10.1007/s10853-006-0274-6 Vogt, J.-B., Boussac, O., & Foct, J. (2001). Prediction of Fatigue Resistance of a Hot-Dip Galvanized Steel. Fatigue Fracture Engineering Material Structure. Weigand, H., & Nieth, F. (1964). Investigations Into the Performance of Hot Dip Galvanized Steels and Structural Members. Stahl und Eisen, 84(2), 82-88. Wood, W. E. (1994). Heat-Affected Zone Studies of Thermally Cut Structural Steels (Report FHWA-RD-93-O). McLean, VA: FHWA. Wyoming DOT (2020). High Mast Lighting Standard Details [Webpage]. Retrieved December 2020 from http://www.dot.state.wy.us/files/live/sites/wydot/files/shared/Bridge/Highmast_Light_Standard_Sheets.pdf

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Mitigation of Weldment Cracking in Steel Highway Structures Due to the Galvanizing Process Get This Book
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Structural supports for signs, luminaires, and traffic signals and other steel highway structures are generally galvanized to prevent corrosion and provide a long service life. However, recent investigations have revealed incidents of cracking in weldments of galvanized structures that appear to be induced during the galvanizing process.

The TRB National Cooperative Highway Research Program's NCHRP Research Report 965: Mitigation of Weldment Cracking in Steel Highway Structures Due to the Galvanizing Process proposes improved design, materials, and construction specifications of galvanized steel highway structures to mitigate weldment cracking caused by the galvanizing process.

Supplemental materials to the report are appendices that provide details of the work performed in the project.

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