Index
A
synthesis affected by choline
in peripheral neurons, 389
ACTH, plasma levels in stress, 182
Acute-phase reactions in stress, 16–17, 180, 191–194
military aspects of, 195–196
Acute stress
and dopamine in brain, 166–167
and norepinephrine in brain, 164–165
and serotonin in brain, 168–169
tyrosine administration in
animal studies of, 282–287, 299
human studies of, 287–293, 298
Acyl-CoA transport, carnitine affecting, 434–437
Additives in foods, regulation of, 464
Adrenal glands, stress affecting, 14, 181–183
Aerobic endurance
ergogenic aids affecting, 226, 227–228
field task tests of, 123
Aerobic power measurements, 117–118
Aldosterone secretion, stress affecting, 15, 183
Alertness, caffeine affecting, 409–410
in sleep deprivation, 420–421
Altitude
and effects of caffeine intake, 70–71
and effects of carbohydrate supplementation, 60, 67
Alzheimer’s disease, choline in, 248, 249–250, 402
Amino acids
branched-chain
brain levels affected by diet, 268
as energy source, 259
ratio to tryptophan, 225
as supplements, 267
as drugs or foods, 103, 106, 108–109
ergogenic effects of, 263–270
discussion of, 272–275
large neutral, ratio to tryptophan carbohydrate intake affecting, 22–23, 27
protein intake affecting, 241
plasma levels affected by carbohydrate intake, 329–330
recommended research and usage, 269–270, 458–459
requirements in chronic stress, 274
safety concerns with supplements, 36–38, 455–459
and regulation by FDA, 465–467
supplemental, affecting water consumption, 273
transport into brain, 169, 268
Amphetamine, effects of, 408, 424
Anaerobic power measurements, 117
Androgen secretion, stress affecting, 15, 185
Arachidonic acid, 362
Arginine
effects of administration, 272–273
immunological role of, 191
B
Bicarbonate
ergogenic effects of, 230–231
and muscle pH during exercise, 20, 60
Biochemical strategies for ration design, 7–8, 93–106
Biotin, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Blood doping as ergogenic aid, 226
Blood pressure, caffeine affecting , 33
Brain
function affected by choline, 387–388
neurotransmitters in. See Neurotransmitters in brain
responses to stress, 12–13
Breakfast, food intake in, 331, 336
C
Caffeine, 407–425
alertness affected by, 409–410
in sleep deprivation, 420–421
discussion of, 428–431
effects in sleep deprivation, 411–424
ergogenic effects of, 228–229
expectancies affecting behavioral outcomes with, 141
mood affected by, 409–410
in sleep deprivation, 419–420
performance affected by, 32–34, 293–294, 409
in sleep deprivation, 416–419, 428–430
physiological effects of, 410–411, 421–423
potential to enhance performance, 49–50
recommended research and usage, 56–57, 424–425
research at USARIEM, 70–72
Calcium intake, recommended daily allowance for , 95
Caloric intake
deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
recommended daily allowance for, 95
Carbohydrate intake, 321–343
affecting load-bearing work and marksmanship, 69–70
balance with protein in, 331–332
and cognitive performance, 335–342
complex carbohydrates in, 323
cravings for, 23, 243–244, 334
deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
differences in affective response to, 333–334
discussion of, 348–350
effects at breakfast or at lunch, 331, 336–340
and fatigue, 326–335
folk beliefs on, 322–323
glucose ingestion affecting memory, 341
monoamines affecting, 12
and physical performance, 20–21, 342
potential to enhance performance, 49
and reactive hypoglycemia, 323, 328–329
recommended daily allowance, 95
recommended research and usage, 57, 59, 343
serotonin levels in brain affecting, 23, 242–244
and serotonin synthesis in brain, 329–330
simple sugars in, 322–323
in snacks, 340–341
as supplemental fuel source, 226–227, 232
and thermoregulation in cold exposure, 68
and work at high altitude, 60, 67
and work in heat, 68–69
Carcinogenesis, choline role in, 393–394
Cardiovascular stress, tyrosine affecting
in animals, 286–287
in humans, 288–289
Carnitine, 433–451
affecting pyruvate metabolism, 440–443
assay methods for, 438
discussion of, 452
functions of, 434–437
and lactate production, 436, 442
metabolism affected by exercise, 438–440, 447–449
and physical performance, 34–36
recommended research and usage, 58, 450–451
supplemental
and available coenzyme A pool, 444–445
dietary intake versus pharmacological doses in, 450
and exercise performance, 449
and fatty acids used during exercise, 443–444
and work output, 446–447
theoretical importance of, 51–52
Catecholamines
activity in stress, 279–280
affecting immune system, 198
plasma levels in stress, 181
synthesis in brain, 162–163
stress affecting, 12–13
tyrosine affecting synthesis of, 246–248, 278–279
Central nervous system responses to stress, 12–13
Chloride
deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
safe and adequate intake of, 96
and acetylcholine synthesis in brain, 381, 387–388
and carcinogenesis, 393–394
fatty liver in, 382, 386–387, 393, 404
dietary sources of, 382–383
discussion of, 402–405
effects at neuromuscular junction, 389
functions of, 29–30
and memory function, 388
metabolism of, 383–385
and neurotransmission in brain, 381, 387–388
plasma levels of, 383
exercise affecting, 404–405
potential areas of interest, 31–32
potential to enhance performance, 50–51
recommended research and usage, 57–58, 59, 394
requirements in humans, 382, 385–387, 402
safe and adequate intake of, 96
and transmembrane signaling, 381–382, 390–393
Chromium, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Chronic stress
amino acid requirements in, 274
and dopamine in brain, 167–168
and norepinephrine in brain, 165–166
and serotonin in brain, 169–170
Circadian rhythms
disruptions of
and adrenal function in stress, 14, 15
affecting performance, 144
stress affecting, 183
Cocoa butter, substitute for, 373
Cognitive performance. See Mental performance
Cold stress
carbohydrate intake affecting thermoregulation in, 68
memory impairment in, 301–316
discussion of, 319–320
tyrosine affecting, 25, 305–312
Combat settings
acute behavioral effects of, 281
food intake in, 10–11, 148–149, 269
sleep deprivation in, 9–10
stress reaction syndrome in, 281
Committee on Military Nutrition Research (CMNR)
questions for, 4
responses to, 53–56
recommendations of, 56–60
Contextual variables affecting food intake, 10–11, 137–151
baseline data in, 139–140
in clinical disorders, 144
combat conditions affecting, 148–149
controlled treatment conditions in, 142
discussion of, 154–157
expectancies in, 140–141
individual differences in, 142–143
levels of treatment complexity in, 146–147
military issues in, 149–150
social factors in, 145–146
Copper, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Corticotropin-releasing factor
affecting immune system, 198
and effects of stress on working memory, 305–306
neuronal production of, 182
Cortisol
plasma levels in stress, 14, 182–183
secretion affected by cytokines, 197
Cycle ergometry, 120
glucose uptake studies in, 213–214
Cyclodextrins as carriers of nutrients, 103–104
Cytokines
and acute-phase reactions, 16–17, 180, 191–194
and cortisol secretion, 197
and hormone production, 14
responses to stress, 189–191
D
Deficiency syndromes, time course for onset of, 106
Dehydration, water intake in, 232, 233
Delivery of nutrients, biochemical strategies for, 100–104
basic performance-nutrient
concept in, 84–85
biochemical strategies for, 7–8, 93–106
controlled delivery of nutrients in, 101–104
barriers in, 101–102
discussion of, 108–109
encapsulation techniques in, 103–104
criteria for, 105–106
dual-function ingredients in, 104–105
experimental diets in, 86–89
factors affecting, 78
goal programming in, 85–86
interactions of nutrients in, 98–101
military nutrition standards in, 94–96
practical considerations in, 97–101
self-heating individual meal modules in, 79–82
in tailored-ration system, 89
and time course for onset of nutrient deficiency syndromes, 106
Dexfenfluramine affecting serotonin levels, 243–244
Diacylglycerol, 368
role in transmembrane signalling, 391–392
Dichloroacetate
affecting blood lactate levels, 20
ergogenic effects of, 231
Dihydroxyacetone with pyruvate, ergogenic effects of, 229
Docosahexaenoic acid, 360–362
L-Dopa, food intake affecting therapeutic effects of, 241–242
Dopamine in brain
synthesis of, 162–163
tyrosine affecting, 246–248, 278
Drug or food categories
definitions of, 461–463
and delivery of nutrients, 103
dosages affecting, 106, 108–109
and effects of nutrients in pure form or in natural food form, 253–254
for ergogenic aids, 224
and FDA regulations, 38
Dual-function ingredients, 104–105
E
Eicosapentaenoic acid, 360–362
Encapsulation of nutrients, techniques for, 103–104
Endocrine responses to stress, 14–15, 180–186
in animal models, 215–217
in exercise, 214–215
interactions with immune responses, 197–199
pancreatic clamp studies, 215–216
Endorphins
affecting immune system, 198
stress affecting, 186
Endurance capacity tests, 120–123
Energy intake. See Caloric intake
Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome from tryptophan, 36, 455–456, 466–467
Epinephrine
affecting blood glucose levels, 18
plasma levels
in exercise, 214
in stress, 181
synthesis affected by tyrosine, 278
Ergogenic aids
to enhance recovery, 232–233
to maximize muscle glycogen stores, 225–226
neurostimulant, 224–225
to reduce metabolic by-products, 230–232
as supplemental fuel source, 226–230
Ergometry, cycle, 120
glucose uptake studies in, 213–214
Erythropoietin injections as ergogenic aid, 226
Exercise
bicycle ergometer studies in, 213–214
carbohydrate supplementation in, 227, 232
carnitine metabolism in, 35–36, 438–440, 447–449
choline levels in, 404–405
effects of medium-chain triglycerides in, 229–230, 368–370, 378
in endurance tests, 120–121
fuel utilization in, 210–214
metabolic responses to, 18
F
Fat intake
deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
effects of, 254–255
recommended daily allowance for, 95
Fatigue
carbohydrate intake affecting, 26–27, 326–335
in carnitine deficiency, 34
Fatty acids.
See also Lipids, structured
intake affecting physical performance, 20
omega-6, 361–362
oxidation affected by carnitine, 358, 434
plasma levels affected by caffeine, 228–229
triacylglycerol. See Triglycerides
Fear affecting food intake, 144
Fenfluramine affecting carbohydrate intake, 23
FieldBreak version of Meal Ready-to-Eat, 82
Fight or flight response to stress, 14, 178, 181
Fluoride, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Fluoxetine affecting serotonin release, 242
Folic acid affecting choline metabolism, 384–385
Follicle-stimulating hormone secretion, stress affecting, 15, 185
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulation of food components, 38, 461–468
Food ingredients defined as drugs, 461–463.
See also Drug or food categories
G
G protein activation, and signal transduction, 391
Glucagon levels
Glucocorticoids, adrenal
affecting immune system, 198
responses to stress, 14, 182–183
Glucose
administration affecting
performance, 28
memory performance in, 341
effects on cold-induced memory
in repeated acquisition procedures, 313–314
metabolism of
during exercise, 211–214
stress affecting, 17–19
plasma levels
carbohydrate intake affecting, 227, 322–323
in reactive hypoglycemia, 323, 328–329
Glycogen in muscle
carbohydrate supplementation affecting, 227, 232
and lactate output from nonexercising muscles, 274–275
maximized by ergogenic aids, 225–226
Growth hormone
affecting immune system, 198
stress affecting secretion of, 15, 184
H
Heat
carbohydrate intake affecting thermoregulation in, 68–69
water loss in, 231–232
Heat shock proteins, 194–195
Heating of food
in self-heating individual meal modules, 79–82
as sterilization technique, 80
Helplessness
learned, 280
noradrenergic, 280
Homocysteine, and choline metabolism, 384–385
Hormonal responses to stress, 14–15.
See also Endocrine responses to stress
5-Hydroxytryptamine. See Serotonin in brain
Hypersensitivity, delayed, stress affecting, 188
Hypoglycemia, reactive, 323, 328–329
Hypoxia, hypobaric, effects of tyrosine in
in animals, 285–286
in humans, 287–288
I
Immune system
malnutrition affecting, 196–197
responses to stress, 15–17, 186–197
interactions with hormonal responses, 197–199
Immunizations, stress affecting antibody responses to, 188
Immunodeficiency syndrome, nutritionally acquired, 196
Individual differences
in affective response to carbohydrate intake, 333–334
in variables affecting food intake, 142–143
Infectious diseases, stress in, 179–180
Insulin
affecting tryptophan levels in plasma, 241
plasma levels
carbohydrate supplementation affecting, 227
medium-chain fatty acids affecting, 370
Insulin-like growth factor, stress affecting, 186
Interleukins
IL-1, 192–194
IL-6, 194
Intestinal hormones, stress affecting, 186
Iodine, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Iron, recommended daily allowance for, 95
K
Ketone bodies produced from medium-chain fatty acids, 359, 370
L
Lactate
accumulation affected by carnitine, 436, 442
efflux from muscle to blood affected by blood pH, 231
output in muscle glycogen breakdown, 274–275
Lecithin. See Phosphatidylcholine
Levodopa, food intake affecting therapeutic effects of, 241–242
LINDO program in design of combat rations, 85–86
Linoleic acid, 361
Lipids, structured, 351–374
definition of, 362–363
discussion of, 378–379
in enteral and parenteral nutrition, 364–368
and performance enhancement, 28–29
recommended research and usage, 58, 373–374
theoretical importance of, 52
therapeutic uses of, 373
Liposomes for delivery of nutrients, 104
Liver, fatty, in choline deficiency, 382, 386–387, 393, 404
Load-bearing work, carbohydrate intake affecting, 69–70
Lunch, food intake in, 331, 337–340
Luteinizing hormone levels, stress affecting, 185
Lymphocytes
hormones secreted by, 197–198
M
Magnesium, recommended daily allowance for, 95
Malnutrition. See Undernutrition
Manganese, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Marksmanship, carbohydrate intake affecting, 69–70
Meals Ready-to-Eat (MRE), 79
FieldBreak version of, 82
Memory performance
choline affecting, 388
cold-induced impairment of, 301–320.
See also Cold stress, memory impairment in
glucose intake affecting, 341
Mental performance
in sleep deprivation, 416–419
carbohydrate intake affecting, 27–28, 335–342
choline affecting, 31
and cold-induced memory impairment, 301–320
evaluation of, 9–10
food components affecting, 21–24
protein intake affecting, 27–28
sleep deprivation affecting, 128
effects of caffeine in, 416–419
Metabolism
carnitine, exercise affecting, 438–440, 447–449
choline, 383–385
and energy supply for muscular activity, 115–118
and fuel utilization during exercise, 210–213
of long-chain triglycerides, 352–355
of medium-chain triglycerides, 356–359
pyruvate, carnitine affecting, 440–443
stress affecting, 17–19, 209–234
Methionine, and choline metabolism, 384–385
Micelles as carriers of nutrients, 104
Microwave heating for sterilization of food, 80
Minerals
supplemental, regulation of, 465
trace, deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
Molybdenum, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Monoamine neurotransmitters. See Neurotransmitters in brain
Mood
affecting performance, 324–326
caffeine affecting, 32–33, 409–410
in sleep deprivation, 419–420
carbohydrate intake affecting, 23, 26–27, 266, 324–335
and food intake, 144
protein intake affecting, 266
Motivation affecting performance, 325–326
Muscle
carnitine concentrations in exercise, 439
energy supply for, 115–116
glycogen levels
carbohydrate supplementation affecting, 227, 232
and lactate output from nonexercising muscles, 274–275
maximized by ergogenic aids, 225–226
strength measurements, 116–117
N
Nanocapsules for nutrients, 103–104
Neuroendocrine-immune system responses to stress, 177–200
Neuromotor control, assessment of, 118–119
Neurotransmitters in brain
effects on nutrient intake, 22–24
nutrients affecting release of, 22, 239–251
discussion of, 253–261
precursor control of, 245–246
stress affecting, 12–13, 161–175
Nitric oxide, effects of, 190–191
Norepinephrine
affecting blood glucose levels, 18–19
brain activity affected by stress, 12–13, 164–166
plasma levels
in stress, 181
synthesis in brain, 162–163
tyrosine affecting synthesis of, 246–248, 278
Nutritional standards for military rations, 94–96
O
Obesity, carbohydrate craving in, 243–244, 334
Ohmic heating for sterilization of food, 80
Opioid peptides
affecting immune system, 198
response to carbohydrate intake, 327
stress affecting, 186
Oxytocin levels, stress affecting, 186
P
Pancreas
clamp studies of hormones affecting glucose production, 215–216
hormones affected by stress, 185
Pangamic acid, dichloroacetate activity in, 231
Pantothenic acid, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Parasympathetic cholinergic neurotransmission, choline affecting, 389
Pemmican affecting performance, 255
Performance enhancement research at USARIEM, 65–74
Phosphate
intake affecting tissue oxygen extraction, 20
loading with, ergogenic effects of, 226
Phosphatidylcholine, 30, 248–250, 382, 390
as dietary supplement, 383, 403–404
hydrolysis products of, 392–393
plasma levels of, 383
Phospholipase C activation, and signal transduction, 391
Phospholipids, choline, 382, 390
and signal transduction, 392–393
Phosphorus, recommended daily allowance for, 95
Physical performance
aerobic power in, 117–118
anaerobic power in, 117
carbohydrate intake affecting, 26–27, 342
carnitine affecting, 34–36
energy substrate supply in, 119
food components affecting, 19–21
metabolic capacity in, 115–118
muscular strength in, 116–117
neuromotor control in, 118–119
physiological factors in, 114–120
psychological factors in, 114
submaximal endurance capacity in, 120–123
tissue homeostasis in, 120
Pituitary hormones, stress affecting, 14, 184–185
Potassium, recommended daily allowance for, 95
Pregnancy, effects of caffeine in, 34
Premenstrual syndrome, carbohydrate craving in, 244, 334
Prolactin
affecting immune system, 198
stress affecting secretion of, 15, 184–185
Prostaglandin blocking agents affecting performance in stress, 17, 60, 193
Protein intake
affecting tryptophan and serotonin levels in brain, 241
and appetite regulation, 266
and cognitive performance, 27–28
deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
ergogenic effects of, 263–270
discussion of, 272–275
normal, 243
recommended daily allowance for, 95
requirements in stress, 264–265, 269
and tryptophan levels in plasma, 331–332
Protein kinase C activation, and signal transduction, 391–392
Pyruvate
with dihydroxyacetone, ergogenic effects of, 229
metabolism affected by carnitine, 440–443
R
Radiation for sterilization of food, 80
Reaction times, caffeine affecting, 409
in sleep deprivation, 416
Recommendations regarding food components, 56–59
glucose, 316
and ration design, 104–106
structured lipids, 58, 373–374
tyrosine, 58–59, 293–294, 315–316
Recommended dietary allowances, military, 6, 95–96, 481–500
Regulation of food components by FDA, 38, 461–468
discussion of, 469–475
Renin secretion, stress affecting, 15, 183
Research in nutritional enhancement of soldier performance, 5–6
potential areas for, 59–60
studies at USARIEM from 1985 to 1992, 65–74
S
Safety of supplements
ingredients generally recognized as safe, 463–464
and regulation by FDA, 38, 461–468
Seasonal affective disorder, carbohydrate craving in, 244, 334
Secretin levels in plasma, stress affecting, 186
Selenium, safe and adequate intake of, 96
Self-heating individual meal modules, 79–82
Selye’s studies of responses to stress, 14, 178–179
Serotonin in brain
affecting carbohydrate intake, 23
branched-chain amino acid supplements affecting, 225
and nutrient choice regulation, 242–244
synthesis of, 163
carbohydrate intake affecting, 329–330
tryptophan affecting, 240–242
Signalling, transmembrane, choline’s role in, 381–382, 390–393
Situational variables affecting food intake, 137–157
Sleep deprivation, 9–10, 127–134
affecting food intake, 258
and effects of brief fragmented sleep, 129–130
effects of caffeine in, 32, 33, 411–424
effects of glucose in, 28
mental performance in, 128
Snacks affecting performance, 340–341, 349
Social factors affecting food intake, 145–146
Sodium
deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
recommended daily allowance for, 95
“Soldier as a System” initiative, 4, 66
Somatomedin C levels, stress affecting, 186
Sphingomyelin, 393
Standards for nutrition in military rations, 94–96
Starches, glycemic responses to, 323
Sterilization of foods, methods in, 80
Steroids, androgenic, adverse effects of, 15
Stimulants
caffeine. See Caffeine
as ergogenic aids, 224–225
Stress
brain function in, 12–13
catecholamines in, 279–280
combat stress reaction syndrome, 281
endocrine responses to, 14–15, 180–186
in animal models, 215–217
in exercise, 214–215
interactions with immune responses, 197–199
pancreatic clamp studies, 215–216
immune system responses to, 15–17, 186–197
interactions with hormonal responses, 197–199
in infectious diseases, 179–180
metabolic responses to, 17–19, 209–234
and monoamine neurons in brain, 161–171
discussion of, 174–175
dopamine, 166–168
norepinephrine, 164–166
serotonin, 168–170
protein requirements in, 264–265
Stress proteins, 194–195
T
Tardive dyskinesia, choline in, 249
Testosterone levels, stress affecting, 15, 185
Thermoregulation, carbohydrates affecting
in cold exposure, 68
in heat, 68–69
Thymic involution, stress-induced, 187
Thyroid hormone levels, stress affecting, 15, 184
Trace minerals, deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
Treadmill tests, 120
Triglycerides
hepatic accumulation in choline deficiency, 382, 386–387, 393
long-chain
energy content of, 359
metabolism of, 352–355
mixed with medium-chain triglycerides, 358, 368
medium-chain, 355–360
energy content of, 359
in exercise studies, 229–230, 368–370, 378
mixed with long-chain triglycerides, 358, 368
thermal response to, 359, 370, 378
Tryptophan
brain levels of
protein diet affecting, 268, 272
stress affecting, 168–169
effects in pure form or in natural food form, 253–254
eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome from, 36, 455–456, 466–467
plasma levels of, protein affecting, 331–332
ratio to branched-chain amino acids, 225
ratio to other large neutral amino acids, 241
carbohydrate intake affecting, 22–23, 27, 329
and serotonin synthesis in brain, 240–242
therapeutic uses of, 267
transport into brain, 241, 260
Tumor necrosis factor, 194
Tyrosine, 277–294
and acute stress
animal studies of, 282–287, 299
human studies of, 287–293, 298
and cold-induced memory
in field operations, 307–308
in repeated acquisition procedures, 310
dietary supplements of, 12–13, 24, 266–268
discussion of, 298–299
effects in pure form or in natural food form, 253–254
and mental performance, 21
recommended research and usage, 58–59, 293–294, 315–316
research at USARIEM, 72–73
and synthesis of dopamine and norepinephrine in brain, 162–163, 246–248
U
Underconsumption of rations during combat, 10–11, 148–149, 269
Undernutrition
hepatic glucose production in, 261
and immune system dysfunction, 196–197
performance in, 258
and time course for onset of deficiency syndromes, 106
U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM), performance enhancement research from 1985 to 1992, 65–74
V
Vaccines, stress affecting antibody responses to, 188
Vasoactive intestinal peptide
affecting immune system, 198
stress affecting, 186
Vasopressin, arginine, plasma levels affected by stress, 186
Vitamin intake
deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
regulation of supplements in, 465
W
Warrior’s Edge, 150
Water
deficiency of, time course for onset of symptoms in, 106
intake of
affecting physical performance, 20
amino acids affecting, 273
losses from heat, 231–232
Work-producing aids. See Ergogenic aids
Wound healing, choline affecting, 31–32
Z
Zinc, recommended daily allowance for, 95
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