Index
A
Accountability for drug use, 4, 5, 6, 27, 46, 62, 81, 98-99, 174, 178
Administration regimens.
See also Subtherapeutic antibiotic use
and antibiotic resistance, 31, 33, 72, 151, 163-164
combinations of drugs, 160, 163-164, 197
gradient approach, 72, 157-158
routes, 34-37, 82, 83, 85, 103
subtherapeutic doses, 71-72, 151
Aerococcus viridans, 59
Aeromonas spp., 130-131
A. hydrophila, 127, 128-129, 132-135
A. liquefaciens, 59
A. salmonicida, 59
Agalactia, 43
AGRICOLA, 14
Agricultural Marketing Service, 110-111
Agricultural Research Service, 89, 139, 174, 190
Alabama, 30
Allergenicity of antibiotics, 6, 69, 82, 84-85, 144
American Feed Industry Association, 13
American Sheep Industry Association, 60
American Veal Association, 60
American Veterinary Medical Association, 13, 63-64
Ampicillin, 42, 52, 54, 146, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 172
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), 139, 162, 174, 190
Animal Drug Availability Act (ADAA), 6, 10, 99-100, 107
Animal health industry, economics of subtherapeutic drug use, 180, 186
Animal Health Institute (AHI), 81, 148, 149, 171
Animal management practices
and antibiotic resistance, 9, 150-153, 159, 160
behavioral stress, 193
biosecurity techniques, 197-199
dairy cattle, 44, 64-65, 191-192, 197, 199, 201, 203-205
heat stress management, 190-193
immune-function enhancers, 200-202
intensive management and confinement operations, 31
moisture management, 39, 199-200
overcrowding, 193
pasture management, 50
probiotics (direct-fed microbial), 195-197
sheep, 54-55
subtherapeutic drug-use alternatives, 181, 182, 189-190
swine, 41, 181, 191, 197-198, 206
vaccination, 193-195
Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA), 5, 10, 97-99, 107
Antibiotic drug use.
See also Ban on subtherapeutic antibiotic use;
Subtherapeutic antibiotic use
animal management alternatives to, 9, 190-202
applications, 2, 4, 19, 28, 71
for aquaculture, 59
benefits, 1-2, 4, 13, 21, 25, 29, 68, 72, 73-75, 107, 174-175
case studies, 166-176
concerns, 15, 24, 25-26, 142-143, 155
in dairy industry, 45, 46, 47-48, 52, 119-120
disease eradication and, 190, 206
genetics and, 207-208
growth promotion with, 28, 31, 34, 51-53, 81, 153-154
illegal, 182
issues, 19-26
literature review, 3, 14, 15-19
magnitude of, 24-25
multidrug therapy, 147-148
nutrition and, 202-206
in poultry industry, 18, 32, 175
in sheep industry, 55
therapeutic, 13, 28, 72-73, 103, 153-161
trends, 25
Antibiotic drugs.
See also specific drug
allergenicity in humans, 6, 69, 82, 84-85, 144
availability concerns, 4, 7, 10, 24, 81, 107, 143, 148-149, 176-177
bactericidal, 147-148
bacteriostatic, 147-148
banned, 77, 78, 83-84, 97, 101-102
cell division targets, 147
defensins, 147
DNA gyrase inhibitors, 147
endotoxin blockers, 146
human last line of defense, 35, 168-169, 175
identifying and screening new drugs, 145-148
mechanisms of action, 28, 143-145, 154-155
metabolism modifiers administered with, 146
nonsystemic, 82
over-the-counter availability, 4, 6, 46, 65, 81, 182, 186
protein secreton inhibitors, 147
protein synthesis inhibitors, 146-147
residues in foods, 14, 21, 63, 116-117, 118
systemic, 82
toxicity to humans, 6, 77, 81-82, 83-84, 144
Antibiotic resistance
administration regimen and, 31, 33, 72, 151, 160, 162, 163-164
animal management practices and, 150-153, 159
age of animal population and, 166
and availability of drugs, 4, 7, 9, 24, 81, 107, 143, 148-149, 168-169
cross-genera transfer, 152-153
cross-resistance, 178
definition of, 7-8, 21, 166, 170, 171, 176
development and transmission, 7, 76-77, 78, 79, 150, 151-153, 155-156, 161, 168, 171, 172, 176
economic factors, 150, 182-183
fluoroquinolone controversy, 166, 168-175, 182-183
food-borne pathogens, 2, 8, 23, 70-71, 86, 87, 138, 140, 155, 166, 168, 171, 172
and human health risk, 2, 4, 7, 9, 13, 21, 22-26, 69, 70, 76-78, 79, 86-87, 138, 143, 150, 155, 160, 161-166, 168, 172
mechanisms of action, 146, 151, 154-155, 169
multidrug, 21, 23-24, 78, 79, 80, 107, 138, 149, 152, 153, 154, 159, 162, 170, 176, 183
nonpathogenic bacteria, 8-9, 176, 196
plasmid transfer, 22, 152-153, 169
productivity effects, 43
regulatory and approval process and, 7, 9, 166, 168-176
reservoirs of bacteria, 79, 80, 87, 153, 155, 159, 160, 161, 166, 168, 169, 172
selection pressures, 77, 150, 154, 169, 176
sentinel organisms, 172, 174, 177
Subtherapeutic drug use and, 7, 18, 79, 81, 150, 151, 154, 156, 160
therapeutic doses and, 7, 72-73, 79, 150-151, 156, 158, 160-161, 169, 176
tracking emergence of, 7, 10, 70, 140, 157, 160, 162-166, 168, 172, 173-174, 176, 177
trends, 78-81, 161-166, 183, 196
vancomycin-like, 18, 22, 152-153
veterinary clinical implications, 161-166, 176-177
virginiamycin controversy, 175-176
Antioxidant therapy, 202-206
Antiparasitic drugs, 2, 14, 41-42, 45, 51, 58
Antiprotozoal compounds, 31, 33, 59, 82
Antiseptics, topical
literature, 14
AOAC INTERNATIONAL, 112, 125, 126
Aquaculture industry
compassionate INADs, 94
drug use in, 2, 13, 58-60, 94, 101, 119, 149.
See also Fish and shellfish
growth and structure, 56-58
management strategies, 58, 206
quality assurance, 58
residues in fish and shellfish, 119
Arizona, 192
Arkansas, 30
Arsanilate, 32
Arsanilate sodium, 43
Arsenical compounds, 14, 31, 33, 34, 38, 116-117, 118
Association of American Feed Control Officials, 197
Atrophic rhinitis, 43
Avian influenza, 31, 33, 61, 206
Avian leukosis, 207
Avoparcin, 18, 79, 166, 168, 171
Azithromycin, 170
B
Bacillus cereus, 128-131, 134-135
Bacitracin, 21, 32, 38, 39, 42, 52, 57, 75, 82
Bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia, 59
Bacterial infections
categories of, 71
stress and, 71
Ban on subtherapeutic antibiotic use
consumer costs, 181-182, 183-184
economics analysis, 180-186
extra-label, 107
fluoroquinolones, 107
and management practices, 181, 182
measurement of costs, 180-182
petitions for, 156-157
recommendations, 15
total vs. partial, 182-183
Banned drugs, 77, 78, 83-84, 97, 101-102
Beef cattle production.
See also Meat
and antibiotic resistance, 162, 167, 169
breeding programs, 207
disease prevention, 50, 51-53, 159, 175, 180
economics, 25, 51, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185, 187
growth promotion, 50, 51, 53, 56, 154
history and growth, 48-49, 102
management strategies, 50, 67, 191, 206
microbiological hazards, 75, 130-131
quality assurance program, 67-68
residues in slaughtered animals, 83
specialty producers, 181
therapeutic drug use, 51-53, 74, 180, 182
Beef Quality Assurance program, 67-68
Behavioral stress, management of, 193
Beta-carotene, 204-205
Beta-lactam antibiotic residues, 84, 119, 120, 123, 143, 144.
See also Penicillin
Biosecurity measures, 35, 159, 197-199
BIOSIS, 14
Bison, 56
Blackhead, 33
Bodo spp., 59
Bordetella spp., 194
B. avium, 31
B. pertussis, 194
Bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency, 207
Bovine lingual antimicrobial peptide, 147
Bovine lymphocyte antigen, 207-208
Bovine respiratory syncytial virus, 45
Bovine somatotropin, 2, 13, 48
Bovine viral diarrhea, 45
for disease resistance, 35, 206-208
Brucella spp., 127
B. melitensis, 136
Brucellosis, 45, 50, 53, 72, 136, 190, 206
Buquinolate, 32
C
Campylobacter spp.
antibiotic-resistant, 159-160, 166, 170, 171, 172, 196
C. coli, 127
C. fetus, 74
C. jejuni, 23, 127, 130-135, 197
food-borne illness in humans, 86, 127-135, 137
vaccination against, 194
Campylobacteriosis, 23
Carbadox, 43
Carbenicillin, 162
Carcinogenic compounds, 6, 33, 82, 84, 102
Catfish Farmers of America, 60
Ceftiofur sodium, 34
Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, 174
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 174
Center for Veterinary Medicine, FDA, 2, 13, 33, 88.
See also Regulatory and approval process
criticisms of policies of, 95-96
extra-label use policy, 5, 96-99, 142
Office of New Animal Drug Evaluation, 89
Office of Surveillance and Compliance, 89
organizational structure, 5, 89, 90
practices and procedures, 91-92, 100, 107
residue monitoring, 112-113, 114, 123, 126
responsibilities, 5, 10, 89, 112, 173-174, 197
trends in drug approvals, 94, 101, 169
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 22, 85-86, 88, 127, 130, 133, 139, 140, 170, 174
Cephapirin, 45
Chemical residues in animals, 58, 61, 161
Chemotherapeutic compounds, 43
Chickens. See Poultry
Chilodonella spp., 59
Chloramphenicol, 77, 78, 83-84, 97, 119, 120, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 172
Chlortetracycline, 21, 32, 42, 52, 55, 57, 75, 154, 158
Chromium, 205-206
Ciprofloxacin, 169, 170, 172-173
Classes of food-animal drugs, 2, 12
Clean Water Act, 139
Cleidodiscus spp., 59
Clinton administration, 91-92, 100, 138-139, 195-196
Clopindol, 32
Clostridium spp.
in beef cattle, 50, 53, 130-131
C. botulinum, 128-129
C. perfringens, 39, 40, 43, 55, 128-135
resistant strains, 39-40
vaccination against, 194
Cloxacillin, 45
Codex Alimentarius Commission, 114
Codex Committee on Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods, 106
Colemon Natural Beef, 181
Colibacillosis, 55
Coliform plasmid transfer, 22
Colisepticemia, 72
Colony stimulating factors, 200-202
Colorado, 54
Committee on Drug Use in Food Animals
process, 3
Competitive exclusion products, 39, 196-197
Compliance Policy Guides, 63
Consumer
costs of ban on subtherapeutic antibiotic use, 181-182, 183-184
Continuing education programs, 67
Corynebacterium bovis, 204
Cost of medications, 31, 35, 36-37, 51
Costia spp., 59
Council on Agriculture and Science Technology (CAST) report, 15, 16, 18, 21, 75, 160, 182
Coxiella burnetti, 127
Cryptosporidium parvum, 127
Culicoid control, 50
Cysticercus spp., 127
Cytidine monophosphate-KDO synthetase, 146
D
Dactylogyrus spp., 59
Dairy industry.
See also Drug residues in milk
antibiotic drug use, 45, 46, 47-48, 52, 119-120, 162
breeding programs, 208
disease control, 44, 45-47, 52, 162, 191, 197
food-borne pathogens from, 75
heat stress management, 191-192
history and growth of, 44, 102
human health risks, 46-47, 162-163
management strategies, 44, 64-65, 191-192, 197, 199, 201, 203-205
production enhancers, 2, 13, 48, 52, 205-206
prophylactic treatments, 45, 197
quality assurance program, 46, 63-67, 119, 122
therapeutic treatments, 45-47, 51-53
Databases, 14, 67, 98, 99, 120, 140, 176, 177
Delaney Clause, 102
Denmark, 168
Dequinate, 32
Development of new drugs.
See also Regulatory and approval process
approval process and, 5, 9-10, 91, 96, 99-100, 101-103, 106-109, 114, 143, 149, 166
ban on subtherapeutic antibiotics and, 186
corporations, number of, 101
costs, 96, 99, 101, 103, 106-107, 149
efficacy requirements, 5, 94, 95, 99-100, 103, 104, 108, 175
environmental evaluation, 96, 101, 175
field trials, 94-95, 99-100, 108
food safety requirements, 83, 100-103, 104, 114
identifying and screening new compounds, 145-148
length of time for, 91-92, 103
for minor species, 101
target-animal safety studies, 95, 103, 104
See also Scours
Diethylstilbestrol, 82, 97, 102
Dihydroseptomycin, 52
Dimetridazole, 97
Direct-fed microbial products, 195-197
Disease control.
See also Therapeutic drug use;
Subtherapeutic drug use;
Vaccination
breeding programs, 207-208
in dairy industry, 44, 45-47, 52, 162
eradication programs, 55, 60-61, 190, 206
in poultry, 31-33, 34, 38-40, 60-61, 158-159, 169-170, 171-172, 175, 180, 206
prophylactic treatments, 45
in sheep, 55-56
in swine, 41-42, 43, 74, 75, 158-159, 163, 175, 180, 190, 206
Drug Importation Act, 88
Drug residues in foods.
See also Drug residues in milk
action levels, 114
administration route and, 82, 85, 103
anabolic compounds, 50
analytical methods, 111-112, 113-115, 119, 123, 140, 141
carcinogenic, 82
Compound Evaluation System, 116
defined, 112
in fish and seafood, 58, 119, 140
foreign standards, 104-105
human health risks from, 6, 50, 81-86, 87, 100-103, 116
maximum residue levels, 82, 114
in meat and poultry, 33, 41, 51, 83, 115-119
microbial contamination risks compared, 85-86, 87
monitoring and enforcement, 67, 84, 111, 113-114, 115-119, 123, 140, 141
pharmacokinetics in diseased animals and, 140-141
recommendations, 141
regulatory and approval process, 82, 100-103, 107, 110-111, 114-115
risk assessment, 100-103, 116, 117
safe levels, 114
surveillance testing, 115-116, 123-124, 140
standard setting, 84, 105-106, 108-109, 111-113
target tissue sites, 113-114, 117
tolerance levels, 104-105, 108, 111, 114, 117, 119
violations, 83, 115, 116-117, 118, 183
Drug residues in milk
analytical methods, 119, 122, 124-126
controversies, 125-126
database program, 120
monitoring and enforcement, 120, 124-125
Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 63, 64, 66, 119, 121-122, 123, 125, 126
testing for, 65-66, 122-124, 125-126
tracking, 46
violation rates, 120-121
Duck, 57
Dysentery, 75
Dystocia, 44
E
Echinococcus multilocularis, 194
Economics issues
antibiotic resistance, 150
cost of medications, 31, 35, 36-37, 51
drug development costs, 96, 99, 101-103, 106-107, 149
food-animal production, 1, 4, 21, 24-25, 75
subtherapeutic drug use, 179-187
testing for residues, 125
Economic Research Service, USDA, 13
Edwardsiella ictaluri, 59
Egg Products Inspection Act, 111
Endectocides, 51
Endotoxins, 146
Enforcement of regulations
product labeling, 96-97
recommendations, 141
residues in foods, 115
responsibility for, 84
Enteritis, 44, 54, 57, 127, 164, 165
Enterococcus spp., 74, 79, 152-153
Enzootic abortion, 55
Epididymitis, 55
Epistylis spp., 59
Erysipelothrix rhusiopatheae, 75, 128-129, 194
Erythromycin, 32, 42, 45, 52, 55, 75, 82, 160, 162
Escherichia coli
compounds available for treating infections, 35, 163-164
drug-resistant, 22, 39, 153, 155, 156, 159, 163-164, 165, 166, 169, 174, 196
enterotoxigenic, 196
immune function mediators and, 201
in meat and meat products, 128-133
monitoring, 140
nonpathogenic, in gut flora, 39
nutrition and, 203
O157:H7 strain, 72, 74, 127, 128-135, 138, 155, 193, 194
in poultry, 35, 39, 134-135, 153, 194, 196
scours, 43
Estradiol, 53
Estradiol/progesterone, 53
Estradiol/testosterone, 53
European Economic Community, 104, 105, 106
Extra-label use of drugs, 5, 10, 67, 92, 96-99, 107, 140, 142
F
Farm Bill of 1990, 13
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 5, 88, 93, 96, 111
Food Additives Amendment, 102 n.2
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, 111
Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA), 111
Federal Security Agency, 88
Feed
poultry, 34
Fish and shellfish, drug residues in, 119, 140
Fluoroquinolones, 25, 32, 35, 107, 160, 166, 168-175, 182-183
Food and Agriculture Organization, 106
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 73, 130.
See also Center for Veterinary Medicine
Bureau of Veterinary Medicine, 89, 96
Compliance Policy Guides, 63
food safety responsibilities, 138, 139, 140
Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 63, 64, 66, 121-122
history, 88
milk safety program, 119, 120, 123
monitoring activities, 5, 85-86, 115, 119
Office of Seafood, 119
Officer of the Commissioner, 174
quinolone policy, 170
residue standard setting and enforcement, 84, 99, 111
Food Animal Residual Avoidance Databank (FARAD) project, 5, 67, 98, 99
Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network, 140
Food-borne pathogens, 126-127.
See also Microbial contamination of food
antibiotic resistance in, 8, 70-71, 86, 87, 138, 140, 171
hazardous organisms, 73-74, 75, 126-127
outbreaks of illness, 22-23, 25-26, 85-86, 122, 133, 136-137, 146, 155, 172
selection of, 80
sentinel organisms, 127, 136-137, 172
surveillance barriers, 71
FoodNet, 140
Food poisoning. See Food-borne pathogens
Food safety, responsibility for, 98, 139, 195-196
Food Safety and Quality national initiative, 98
Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS), 5, 63, 83, 85, 86, 88, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 127, 130, 141, 174
Foot-and-mouth disease, 50
Foot rot, 44
Fungi, 31
Furamazone, 52
Furunculosis, 59
G
Gaffkemia, 59
Gastroenteritis, 43
Gastrointestinal diseases, 50
Geese, 56
Genetic selection strategies, 35, 207-208
Gentamycin, 32, 42, 52, 83, 162, 165, 169
Gentamycin sulfate, 34
Georgia, 30
Goats, 56, 57, 83, 101, 102, 149
Gonadotropins, 55
Good laboratory practice (GLP) regulations, 89, 95
Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO), 63, 64, 66, 119, 121-122, 123, 125
Gram-negative bacteria, 146
Growth promotion and feed efficiency
with antibiotics, 28, 31, 34, 51-53, 81, 153-154
in beef cattle, 50, 51-53, 56, 154
in dairy cattle, 52
in minor species, 57
in sheep, 55-56
with steriodal and nonsteroidal estrogenic agents, 29, 31
Grub control, 57
Guidelines
definition, 95-96
dosage, 10
Gyrodactylus spp., 59
H
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, 62, 68, 137, 139
Heat stress management, 190-193
Helminth control, 42
Hemophilus piscium, 59
Hemophilus pleuropneumonia, 43
Hemorrhagic enteritis, 31
Hetacillin, 45
Hill Farm Research Station, 199
Histomonas influenza, 155
Histomoniasis, in poultry, 33
Hospital-acquired (nosocomial) bacterial infections, 22, 24, 69
Human health risks
animal-to-human transfer of disease, 78, 79, 80, 86-87, 143, 161-162, 168, 171, 172
antibiotic resistance and, 2, 4, 7, 9, 13, 21, 22-26, 69, 70, 76-78, 79, 86-87, 138, 150, 154-155, 160, 161-166, 168, 172
carcinogens, 82
from dairy cattle, 46-47
hospital-acquired infections compared, 22, 24, 69
magnitude of threat, 2, 3, 9, 23-24, 70, 77-78, 86
mathematical model, 18
from poultry, 38-40
regulatory and approval process and, 100-103
from residues in food, 81-86, 100-103, 116
sensitive populations, 8, 9, 25-26, 70
steroid growth promoters, 50
of subtherapeutic antibiotic use in animals, 18, 75, 76, 150, 160
toxicity of antibiotics, 6, 77, 81-82, 83-84
I
Icthyopthirius spp., 59
Identification of treated animals, 65
Immunostimulants, 200-202
Imported foods, 140
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, 45, 53
Injection site tissue damage, 67
Insecticides and insecticidal ear tags, 51
Inspection at slaughter, 75
Institute of Medicine (IOM), 15, 17, 18, 150, 156
International Conference on Harmonization, 104
International Meeting on Nucleic Acid Vaccines for Prevention of Infectious Diseases, 195
antiprotozoals, 33
Iowa, 40
Iron, 206
Israel, 192
J
Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives, 106
K
L
Labels/labeling, drug, 65, 67, 96, 100
Lactobacillus spp., 39-40, 196
Laminitis, 44
Leptospira interrogans, 127
Leptospirosis, 43, 45, 53, 72, 74
Lice, 43
Lincoln, Abraham, 88
Lincomycin, 38, 39, 42, 82, 162
Lincosaminides, 160
Listeria spp., 127
Literature review
databases, 14
Litter, water activity of, 39
Louisiana State University, 199
Lyme disease, 70
M
Maduramycin, 32
Manure, environmental exposure to, 79, 80, 159, 161, 166
Mastitis, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 162, 191-192, 199-200, 201, 203-205, 208
Meat
bacterial contamination, 74, 75, 127-137
drug residues in, 47, 63, 64, 83, 85, 113, 115-119
inspection, 111
Melengestrol, 53
Methicillin, 162
Microbial contamination of food.
See also Food-borne pathogens;
specific pathogens
costs of, 138
illness determinants, 131-133
magnitude and severity of threat, 69, 86, 87, 137-138
meat and meat products, 127-136, 141
milk and other dairy products, 121-122, 133, 136
poultry, 35, 38-40, 75, 134-135
recommendations, 141
residue risks compared, 85-86, 87
risk assessment, 140
routes of, 127
surveillance and monitoring of, 85-86, 138, 139, 140, 141
Milk.
See also Drug residues in milk
pathogen contamination, 121-122, 133, 136, 163-164
Milk and Dairy Beef Quality Assurance Program, 63
Milk and Dairy Beef Residue Prevention Protocol, 63, 66, 123
Minnesota, 137
Minor species.
See also individual species
veal calves as, 54
Mite control, 55
Moisture management, 39, 199-200
Monitoring
antibiotic resistance in pathogens, 7, 70, 140, 157, 160, 162-166, 168, 174, 176
disease outbreaks, 85-86
drug residues in food, 5, 6, 34, 71, 86, 113-114, 115, 124-125, 140
microbial contamination, 86
Monogenetic trematodes, 59
Montana, 54
Morantel tartrate, 118
Morocco, 39
Mosquito control, 50
Mycoplasma spp., 194
M. meleagridis, 60
N
Nalidixic acid, 165, 168, 169, 173
Narasin, 32
National Antimicrobial Monitoring System, 174
National Antimicrobial Susceptibility Monitoring Program, 140
National Aquaculture Association, 60
National Broiler Council, 60, 61
National Cattlemen’s Association, 51
National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, 60, 67
National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS), 170, 171
National Conference on Interstate Milk Shipments (NCIMS), 119, 120, 123, 125
National Drug Residue Milk Monitoring Program, 120
National Food Safety Initiative, 139-140
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 195
National Mastitis Council, 125
National Milk Producers Federation, 60, 63-64
National Pork Producers Council (NPPC), 60, 61, 62, 63
National Poultry Improvement Plan, 60-61
National Research Council, 2, 13, 16, 205
National Residue Program, 115
National Surveillance for Antibiotic Resistance in Zoonotic Enteric Pathogens, 174
National Turkey Federation, 60
Chemical Residue Avoidance Program, 61
National Turkey Improvement Plan, 60
National Veterinary Services Laboratory, 162
Necrotic enteritis, 39
Nematode control, 45
Neomycin, 32, 42, 52, 55, 57, 82, 83, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167
Nequinate, 32
Nicarbazin, 32
Nitrarsone, 33
Nitrofurans, 25, 33, 35, 82, 84, 97, 102, 164
Nonpathogenic bacteria, 8-9, 176
Nonsteroid growth promoters, 14
Nourseotricin, 153
Novobiocin, 32, 45, 57, 82, 162
Nutrition, 11, 30, 50, 192, 202-206
O
Office of Science and Technology Policy, 140
Office of Technology Assessment, 22, 76
Organochlorine and organophosphate compounds, 14, 116-117, 118
Ormetoprin, 59
Over-the-counter antibiotic sales, 4, 6, 46, 65, 81, 182, 186
Overcrowding, management of, 193
Oxazolidinones, 146
Oxolinic acid, 119
Oxytetracycline, 32, 33, 42, 45, 52, 53, 55, 59, 75, 94, 154
P
Parvovirus, 43
Pasteurella spp., 194
pneumonia, 43
Pasteurellosis, 169
Pathogens.
See also Antibiotic resistance;
Food-borne pathogens;
Microbial contamination of food;
specific pathogens
adaptation to environment, 76-77
animal-to-human transfer, 78, 79, 80, 86-87, 143, 161-162
eradication of, 35
Pathogen Reduction Task Force, 85-86, 130
Penicillin, 18, 20, 21, 32, 38, 39, 42, 45, 51-53, 55, 57, 81, 82, 83, 85, 117, 119, 143, 144, 148, 154, 155, 156, 161, 162, 163-164, 166, 169
Pennsylvania, 204
Peptide production enhancers, 2, 13
Pfisteria, 101
Pheasant, 57
Phenothiazine, 57
Pirlimycin, 45
Poison Control Center, 95
Porcine stress syndrome, 207
Pork Quality Assurance (PQA) program, 61-63
Poultry and poultry products
drug residues in, 33, 83, 115-119
microbial contamination, 35, 38-40, 75, 134-135, 168
Poultry production
and antibiotic resistance, 18, 32, 153, 158, 162, 167, 168, 169-170, 171-172
breeding programs, 207
Clostridium infections, 39-40
concerns, 35
cost of medications, 35, 36-37
day-old-chick vaccination, 31, 34
disease control, 31-33, 34, 38-40, 60-61, 158-159, 169-170, 171-172, 175, 180, 206
drug approval process, 103
Escherichia coli infections, 35, 39, 196
growth promotion, 1, 31, 34, 38, 56, 154
history and growth of industry, 29-30, 102
integration of industry, 30-31, 33, 49
management practices, 61, 191, 192-193
quality assurance program, 34, 60-61
routes of drug administration, 34-37
Salmonella infections, 38-39, 158, 162, 167, 197, 206
water medication, 34-35
Poultry Products Inspection Act (PPIA), 111
Prevention of bacterial infections, 71-72.
See also Prophylactic treatments;
Subtherapeutic antibiotic use
Production enhancers, in dairy industry, 48
Production of food animals.
See also Animal management practices;
individual industries
Productivity effects of antibiotic resistance, 43
Prophylactic use of drugs
immune function mediators, 200
in poultry industry, 31, 33, 34
risk-benefit analysis, 71-72
Propionibacterium acnes, 202
Pseudomonas spp., 59
Pseudorabies, 43
Psoroptis ovis, 199
Pure Food and Drug Act, 88
Q
Quail, 57
Quality assurance programs, 27-28
aquaculture, 58
beef, 67-68
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, 62, 68
incentives for participants, 66
pork, 61-63
residue screening, 112
VCPR and, 5, 28, 54, 56, 64, 67, 97, 98-99
Quinoxaline di-N-oxides, 82, 84
R
Rabbits, 57
Recombinant bovine somatotropin, 2, 13, 48
Recommendations
animal management research, 11, 208-209
antibiotic development and use, 10, 177, 178
antibiotic resistance surveillance, 11, 177-178
consumer education, 178
database, 177
food animal identification, 178
monitoring and enforcement, 141
nutrition research, 11, 208-209
regulatory and approval process, 10, 107-109, 177
Records, treatment, 4, 65, 66, 67
Regulations, 89, 94-95, 96, 97, 106
Regulatory and approval process.
See also individual statutes and agencies
antibiotic resistance and, 166, 168-176
carcinogenic drugs, 82
compassionate INAD, 94
continuing education programs, 67
direct-fed microbial products, 196-197
drug development perspectives, 5, 91, 96, 99-100, 101-103, 106-109, 114, 143, 149, 166
efficacy requirements, 6, 94, 95, 99-100, 103, 104, 107, 108
enforcement policies, 96-97
environmental evaluation, 96, 101, 104
extra-label usage, 5, 67, 92, 96-99, 107, 140, 142
field trials, 94-95, 99-100, 108
food-safety research program, 96
guidelines for meeting criteria, 95-96
history, 88
human drug application process compared, 95, 97, 103, 104, 107
human health risks and, 82, 100-103
investigational new animal drug (INAD) application, 89-90, 92, 93, 94, 108
IR4 program, 54
length of, 5, 24, 91, 93, 103, 106-107
New Animal Drug Application (NADA), 89, 92, 93, 114
organizational structure, 88-89, 90
panel approach, 105-106
preapproval process, 89-91, 92-93, 94-95
quality of sponsor applications, 94
recommendations, 10, 107-109, 177
redirected drug use, 95
reforms needed, 95-96, 99, 107-108
residues in foods, 83, 100-103, 104-106, 107, 108-109, 112, 114
restructuring, 5, 9-10, 91-100, 107, 143
socioeconomic and political pressures, 96, 143
target-animal safety studies, 95, 104
trends in approvals, 94, 101-102
worldwide harmonization of, 104-106, 109, 143
Reindeer, 57
Reinfection and cross-infection of animals, 159
Residues. See Drug residues in food
Resistance, defined, 77.
See also Antibiotic resistance
Respiratory disease complex, 50, 53
Respiratory infections, 44, 50, 52, 54, 55
Rifamycin, 77
Robenidine, 32
Rockefeller University, 80
Roosevelt, Theodore, 88
S
Sales of animal drugs, 103
Salmonella spp., 127
animal-to-human transfer, 162-163, 171, 172
drug-resistant, 22, 23, 136, 150, 156, 158, 159, 162, 163, 164-166, 167, 169, 171, 172-173, 174, 196
DT-104 strain, 23, 72, 73-74, 138, 149, 155, 170, 172-173
in meat and meat products, 128-133, 162
moisture conditions and, 39
monitoring, 140
in poultry and poultry products, 31, 134-135, 158, 162, 167, 193, 194, 206
reservoirs, 155
S. enteritidis, 136, 164, 165, 194, 206
S. heidelberg, 163
S. javiana, 136
S. newport, 162-163
S. oranienburg, 136
S. typhimurium, 136, 155, 159, 164-166, 167, 194
in sheep, 167
vaccinations, 193
virulence and pathogenicity, 38, 72, 73-74, 138, 150, 155, 159, 196
Salmonellosis
economic impacts, 38
in humans, 23, 38, 70, 73-74, 78, 81, 86, 136
in poultry, 38-39
in swine, 74
Salinomycin, 32
satA-gene-mediated streptogramines, 79
Screening for drug residues in food, 6, 65-66, 111-112, 145-148
analytical approaches, 111-112
confirmatory methods, 112
Screwworm control, 55
Scyphidia spp., 59
Selection pressures, 77, 150, 154, 169, 176
Septicemia, 146
Sheep production
antibiotic resistance, 167
disease control, 55-56
economics, 25
management strategies, 54-55
microbiological hazards, 75, 132-133
residues in slaughtered animals, 83
Shipping fever, 55
Slaughtered animals
residues in, 83
test subjects, 90
South Dakota, 54
Spain, 171
Specific-pathogen-free stock, 35, 206
Squab, 56
Staphylococcus spp.
multidrug resistant, 153
S. aureus, 35, 46-47, 128-131, 134-135, 201, 203, 205
Steroid anabolic growth promoters, 2, 12-13, 14, 50, 53
Storage of drugs, 65
Streptococcus
antibiotic resistance, 162
infections, 43
S. agalactiae, 162
S. faecalis, 196
S. suis, 74
Streptomycin, 21, 32, 42, 45, 52, 55, 57, 82, 144, 158-159, 162, 163-164, 165, 166, 172
Streptothricin, 153
Stress, and bacterial infection, 71, 159, 180, 202
Subtherapeutic antibiotic use.
see also Ban on subtherapeutic antibiotic use
administration strategies, 71-72, 151, 157
and antibiotic resistance, 7, 18, 79, 81, 150, 151, 154, 156, 179
criticisms of, 156
economic analysis, 107, 179-187
human health risks, 18, 75, 76, 150, 160
low therapeutic dose distinguished from, 51
mechanism of action, 77, 154, 157
trends, 25
Sulfa drugs, 14, 81, 94, 120, 145-146, 148, 160
Sulfabromomethazine, 52
Sulfacetamide, 84
Sulfachloropyrazine, 32, 43, 52, 84
Sulfamethazine, 32, 43, 50, 52, 63, 84
Sulfamethoxazole, 78, 163-164, 165, 166
Sulfamyxin, 32
Sulfanilamide, 84
Sulfanitran, 32
Sulfonamides, 32, 33, 51, 52, 54, 55, 84, 116-117, 118, 165, 172
Surveillance testing, drug residues in foods, 115-116, 123-124, 140
Surveys of food-borne illness, 133-137
Swann Committee Report, 15, 16, 156
Sweden, 166
Swine production.
See also Pork
antibiotic resistance, 43, 158-159, 160-161, 162, 163, 167, 168
breeding programs, 207
disease control, 41-42, 43, 74, 75, 158-159, 163, 175, 180, 190, 206
economics, 25, 40, 75, 181, 182, 185, 186, 187
growth and metabolic performance, 42-43, 154
integration of industry, 30, 40-41, 49
management systems, 41, 181, 191, 197-198, 206
microbiological hazards, 128-129
residues in slaughtered animals, 83, 85
therapeutic drug use, 182
T
Testing feed quality, 61
Testing for drug residues
analytical methods, 111-112, 113-115, 119, 123, 140
toxicity, 112-113
unresolved issues, 125-126
Tetracycline, 18, 21, 32, 38, 42, 50, 51-53, 78, 81, 82, 83, 120, 152-153, 156, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 172
Thailand, 170
Therapeutic drug use
and antibiotic resistance, 7, 72-73, 79, 150-151, 156, 157, 158-159, 160-161, 176
in dairy cattle, 45-47
definition, 180
economics of, 74
minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC), 150-151, 166, 176
in poultry, 34-35
reduction strategies, 188-189
regulation of, 182
risk—benefit assessment, 72-73, 74, 75, 179
Thiabendazole, 57
Tiamulin, 42
Tobromycin, 169
Toxic shock syndrome, 146
Toxic Substances Control Act, 111
Toxicity of food-animal drugs, 81-82, 83-84, 103, 112-113, 144
Toxoplasma gondii, 127
Toxoplasmosis, 72
Tracking
antibiotic resistance, 7, 70, 140, 157, 160, 162-166, 168, 174, 176
drug residues in food, 113-115
Trenbolone, 53
Trends
in antibiotic resistance, 78-81
Tricaine methanesulfonate, 59
Trichinella spiralis, 127
Trichodina spp., 59
Trimethoprim, 146, 160, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 172
Trypanosomiasis, 207
Tuberculosis, 31, 50, 72, 190, 206
Turkeys. See Poultry
Tylosin, 32, 33, 38, 42, 50, 52, 75, 82
U
United Egg Producers, 60
United Kingdom, 75, 155, 164, 168, 170, 171, 172
United States and Canada Free Trade Agreement, 104-105
University of California at Davis, 98
University of Florida, 98
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2
Bureau of Chemistry, 88
Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, 98, 139
food safety responsibilities, 138, 140, 174
National Agriculture Library, 14
Pathogen Reduction Task Force, 85-86, 130
residue monitoring and enforcement responsibilities, 111, 114-115
Residue Monitoring Program, 67, 83, 84
U.S. Department of Health and Human
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 88, 111, 139
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 119
U.S. Public Health Service, 88, 90, 119, 121, 122
U.S. Trout Farmers Association, 60
V
Vaccinations, 127
eradication of disease, 206
mutations introduced by, 194
nucleic acid, 195
pathogen targets, 193-194
poultry, 31, 33, 35, 40, 193, 194
research recommendations, 11, 209
sheep, 55
Vancomycin, 18, 22, 79, 152-153, 166, 168
Veal production, 53-54, 101, 102, 163, 181
Veterinarian-client-patient relationship (VCPR), 5, 28, 54, 56, 64, 67, 97, 98-99
Veterinary feed directive drugs, 100
Vibrio spp., 127
Vibriosis, 55
Virginiamycin, 32, 38, 39, 42, 79, 82, 175-176
Vitamin A, 204-205
W
Water
quality and availability, 192
Withdrawal
diets, 34
intervals, 99
times, 33, 38, 67, 83, 84, 90, 96, 97, 99, 113, 117, 126, 161
World Health Organization (WHO), 17, 18, 78, 106
Worms, 31, 33, 43, 50, 55, 56, 57
Wyoming, 54
Y
Yersinia spp., 74
Z
Zoalene, 32
Zoonotic disease transfer, 8, 18, 69-70, 72, 74, 87, 150-151, 154, 160, 162-163, 176
Zoothamnium spp., 59
