Index
A
Abrupt climate change, 8, 15, 21, 534-536, 540, 600, 603
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, 508, 509
Aerosols.
See also Sulfate aerosols;
other specific aerosols
coral records of, 498
modeling, 166
Africa.
See also Sahel;
other specific regions and countries
droughts, 35
rainfall variability, 32-43
Agadez, 35
Aghullas retroflection, 537
Agung, Mt., 194
Air temperature (land and marine).
See also Land temperature;
Ocean temperature;
Sea surface temperature
abrupt changes, 534-535
anomalies, 98-104, 106-109, 128, 202-203, 207
anthropogenic influences on, 92-94
and atmospheric circulation, 116, 124-128, 600
carbon dioxide and, 57, 90, 96, 97-99, 105-106, 167-168, 183, 195-196, 207, 493, 533, 573-574
century means, 26
cloud cover and, 15-16, 90-92, 93, 95
decadal-scale variability, 13, 23, 85-87, 97-110, 200, 201, 208, 209, 367, 516-517, 520, 523-532
diurnal range (DTR), 81-96
dust generation and, 573
El Niño events and, 99, 103, 105-106, 115, 167, 202-204, 207, 208, 209
empirical orthogonal analysis of, 190, 200, 201, 203, 205, 272
globally averaged, 13, 57, 97-107, 121, 126, 195, 200, 204, 207, 600
gradual warming trend, 600-601
and Great Salinity Anomaly, 326
greenhouse gases and, 92-94, 95
greenhouse warming and, 54-55
and Gulf Stream, 125-126
hemispheric means, 514-516
interannual variability, 67, 103, 107-110, 203, 204, 219
latitude and, 54, 165, 200-202, 204-206, 207
marine, 105, 122-124, 514-516, 574
meridional advection, 137
microwave soundings, 200, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208-209
models/modeling, 90-92, 164-165, 176
North Atlantic, 123, 125-128, 317, 434-436, 533, 534, 600, 601
North Pacific climate and, 473-474, 475-476
and plant microclimates, 577-579
and pressure, 124-127, 527-528
radiosonde data, 205-206, 208-209
and rainfall, 43
records, 24, 28, 131, 167, 199-200, 422, 492, 516-517
relative humidity and, 90-92
sea surface temperature and, 261
seasonal patterns, 200-202, 204-206, 210, 436, 516, 520
snow cover and, 50-55, 57, 79, 90-92
soil moisture and, 53, 57, 89-90
spectral analysis, 100-104, 105, 525-527
stratospheric (lower), 206-207
structure of, 200-202, 204-206
sulfate aerosols and, 94
sunspot cycles and, 90-92, 97-99, 178-179, 192-193, 529-530, 532, 600
surface albedo and, 51-52
and thermohaline circulation, 434-436
tree-ring reconstructions of, 25-27, 29, 117-118, 167, 492, 517-520, 523-532, 600
tropospheric, 53, 116, 200, 202-206, 207
urban heat-island effects, 14, 61, 88-89, 521, 526
volcanism and, 185-186, 195, 206-207, 208, 209
Akkadian culture, 493
Alaska
meteorological network, 88, 89
temperatures, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 475, 476
Albedo, planetary, See also Atmospheric albedo 94;
Ice-albedo feedback;
Surface albedo
Alerce trees (Fitzroya cupressoides), 494
Aleutian Low System, 134, 137, 139, 146, 475, 476, 478, 479, 480, 481
Algal blooms, 568-569
Allerød-Bølling interstadial complex, 552
Along-Track Scanning Radiometer, 508
Analysis of Rapid and Recent Climate Change (ARRCC), 196, 198, 431
Antarctic Bottom Water, 366, 384, 385, 388, 396, 537
Antarctic Circumpolar Current, 119, 140, 351, 371, 388, 395, 397, 401-402, 403, 406, 527, 528
Antarctic Intermediate Water, 385, 537
Antarctica
meteorological network, 201
Anthropogenic changes to climate
distinguishing between natural changes and, 7, 562, 567
and precipitation changes, 15
Arabian Sea, 53
Arctic
climate cycle, 121, 129, 130, 237, 254-257, 261
fresh-water transport from, 313, 379-380
sea-level pressure, 260
temperatures, 219
Arctic Climate Change Program (ACCP), 423-425
Arctic Climate System (ACSYS), 55
Arctic Institute, 252
Arctic Intermediate Water, 263, 309, 316, 383
Arctic Ocean
air temperature, 436
circulation, 289
runoff into, 129, 254-255, 257, 258-259, 262, 312, 314
salinity, 322
snow, 62
temperatures, 31
tracer studies, 286
Arctic Red River (city), 257
Assessment of climate change.
See also Climate-signal detection;
Instrumental record;
Models/modeling
measures of change, 6
observational data plus models, 601-602
statistical characterizations, 7
Atbara, 35
Atlantic Climate Change Program, 239, 421, 423-425
Atlantic Deep Western Boundary Current, 236, 239, 283-285, 289, 424
Atlantic Ocean.
See also North Atlantic Ocean
deep water, 303
eastern subtropical, 130
overturning, 532
surface properties, 21
temperature, 246, 260, 386, 509-510
water-mass distribution, 385
water properties, 21
wind stress, 386
Atlantic Voluntary Observing Ships Special Observing Project, 424
Atmospheric (cloud) albedo, 93, 94, 165
Atmospheric circulation.
See also Coupled atmospheric-oceanic circulation systems;
Winds;
specific features
anticyclones, 90, 116-118, 128, 132, 255, 475
biennial-scale fluctuations, 128
century-scale variations, 117-118
data sources, 112, 113, 117-118
decadal-scale fluctuations, 13, 116-117, 128, 189
double jet structure, 119
eddy vorticity fluxes, 478
equivalent-barotropic vertical structure, 112, 113, 116, 118
glacial-to-interglacial transition, 552, 553
and heat-flux anomalies, 119, 128, 136-139, 147-148
inherent variability in, 188-190
interannual variations, 111-116
mechanisms, 115-116
momentum flux, 115
and North Atlantic climate, 124-128, 424
North Pacific climate, 21, 347, 472-474, 476-477
Northern Hemisphere, 121
and oceanic circulation, 399
phase lags, 114
pressure and, 112, 116-117, 118, 128
proxy data on, 112, 117-118, 119
and salinity, 294
and sea surface temperature, 124-128, 261, 327, 414, 424
Southern Hemisphere, 111-119
storm tracks, 115-116, 118, 119, 137, 473, 478
temperature and, 116, 117-118, 261
transient eddy activity, 115-116
upper-air data, 112-116
Walker circulation, 41, 356, 499
wave trains, 114-115, 116, 118
zonally symmetric modes, 113-114, 115-116, 118, 165
Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project, 399, 400
Atmospheric models/modeling.
See also Coupled general-circulation models;
General-circulation models
baroclinic flow, 166
cloud component, 430
constraints on, 426-427
detection of forced climate signals, 175-181
deterministic, 171-172
greenhouse effect, 169-174
natural climate variability, 169-174
one-dimensional, 165
paleoclimatic data interpretation, 167-174
primitive-equation, 399, 426-427
sensitivity, 601
tritium fluxes, 277
U.K. Meteorological Office Unified Model, 250
zero-dimensional, 164-165
Atmospheric temperature.
See Air temperature
Australia
Bureau of Meteorology, 116
meteorological network, 88, 113
National Climate Centre, 81
rainfall, 117
temperatures, 81, 82, 84, 85, 88
B
Baffin Island, 309
Baffin Island Current, 296
Bali, 500
Baltic Sea, 260, 265, 266, 267, 272
Banjul, 35
Barbados, 505
Barents Sea, 131, 254, 258, 287, 306, 325
Barium, in corals, 498
Barnes Ice Cap, 554
Barometric pressure. See Pressure
Beaufort Sea, 255, 257, 258, 262, 312, 314
Beaufort shelf, 257
Bedford Institute of Oceanography, 297
Bering Sea, 473
Bermuda, 270, 272, 319, 324, 499
Bermuda High, 510-511
Bermuda rise, 542
Bilma, 35
Biogeochemical processes, 351, 555-571
Biomass burning, 94
Bodö, Norway, 366
Bombay, India
mean sea level pressure, 461-463, 464, 465, 468
Bristlecone pines, 494
C
Cadmium, in corals, 498
California
coastal heat exchanges, 142-143, 144-145
fishery data, 560-561, 564-567
temperatures, 473
wind stress, 473
California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, 564-566
California Current, 130, 303, 457, 561, 564-565, 582
Camp Century, Greenland, 24
Canada
cloud cover, 92
meteorological network, 69-71, 73, 88-89
precipitation, 55, 67-69, 71, 74, 75-76, 255, 600
runoff, 254
streamflows, 76
temperatures, 24, 27, 28, 67, 81, 82, 84, 88-89, 200, 201, 202, 206
winds, 255
Canada basin, 258
Canadian Arctic Archipelago, 255
Canadian Climate Center, 119
Canadian high Arctic, 259
Caño, Costa Rica, 503
Cape Hope, 537
Carbon cycle, 8, 105, 557, 559-560
Carbon dioxide, atmospheric
air temperature and, 57, 90, 92-93, 96, 97-99, 105-106, 167-168, 178, 183, 207, 493, 533-534, 573-574
carbon-14 values, 279
and climate-change detection, 209
doubling, 18, 56, 57, 90, 92-93, 96, 167-168, 178, 183, 188, 196
and ENSO events, 105
ice-core records, 194-195, 493
interannual variations, 105
surface temperatures and, 195-196
Carbon-isotope studies, 276, 279, 388, 496
Carbon tetrachloride, 275, 276, 279, 282
Carbonaceous aerosols, 94
Caribbean islands, 498
Caspian Sea, 242
Cave deposits, 491
Cebu Island, 498
Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Interactions (COLA), 46
Centre for Climate and Global Change Research, 131
Charleston, South Carolina, 272, 312
Charlie-Gibbs fracture zone water, 282-283, 291, 297, 302
Chemical Manufacturers Association, 277
China
cloud cover, 92
meteorological network, 88, 89
temperatures, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 200, 201, 517
Chlorofluorocarbons, tracer studies, 275-276, 277-279, 281-282, 283 -286
Chlorophyll, 473
Chukchi Sea, 312
Circulation. See Atmospheric circulation;
Ocean circulation
Circumpolar Deep Water, 315, 385
Climate Analysis Center, 522
Climate forcing and forcing agents
aerosols, 94
of Arctic fluctuations, 260-261
atmospheric observations, 15-16
climate sensitivity to, 172, 176, 181-186, 192, 208
Milankovitch effect, 172
ocean response to, 182-184, 534
ozone, 59
Sahel drought, 45
stochastic, 337, 338, 360-362, 382, 398-406
white-noise, 171, 173, 178, 362
Climate monitoring
deep ocean, 324
with corals, 495-505
tropical ocean, 495-505
systems, 15
Climate-signal detection
carbon dioxide, 105
''fingerprint" technique, 18
from glaciers, 55-56
models for, 178-180
signal-processing approach, 175-181, 201
Tasmanian temperatures and, 530-531
Climate System Modeling Program, 396
Cloud cover
ceiling height, 90
seasonal relationships, 92
sky cover, 90
and temperature, 15-16, 90-92, 93, 95, 189
Cocos, Costa Rica, 503
Cod fisheries, 239, 306-309, 317
Colorado, temperatures, 20, 22
Columbia University, 423
Commonwealth of Independent States. See Soviet Union (former)
Comprehensive Aerological Reference Data Set (CARDS), 119
Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (COADS), 14, 119, 121-128, 131, 135, 141, 142, 147, 234-35, 242, 247, 248, 252, 308, 321, 322 , 326, 357, 466, 514
Conductivity-temperature-depth instruments/measurements, 238, 320
Coral records.
See also specific regions
chemical composition, 492, 496-497
dredging, 491
and ENSO activity, 190, 460, 471, 496, 498, 499-504, 505
environmental reconstructions, 496
interpretation, 496-497
isotopic indicators, 497
and ocean circulation, 496, 498
and ocean surface chemistry, 496
paleoceanographic applications, 491, 496, 498-499, 504-505
and runoff, 498
and Southern Hemisphere climate, 118
temperature reconstructions, 496, 497, 498, 505
tracer studies, 279-280, 460, 496-498
tropical climate monitoring with, 495-505
and water-mass transport, 279-280, 498
Coupled atmospheric-oceanic circulation systems.
See also Coupled general-circulation models;
El Niño/Southern Oscillation
decadal-scale fluctuations, 128-129
decade-to-century scale variability, 419-431
imbalances in, 99
interannual variability, 420-421
meridional modes, 189
natural variability, 188, 190-191
North Pacific, 472-482
research programs, 423
and thermohaline circulation, 131
winter, 121
Coupled general-circulation models
air temperature, 434-436
Antarctic Circumpolar Current response, 401-402
applications, 337
Atlantic Ocean, 420
atmospheric components, 399-400, 404-405, 433, 440, 444, 449
autoregressive analysis, 449-451, 453, 454, 457
boundary-layer processes, 417
cloud cover, 433
component parameterization, 399, 425-429
deep ocean in, 178
density (ocean) component, 399, 436-439
ENSO processes, 415-416, 416-417, 421, 429, 439, 442-457
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), 53, 353, 360, 380-381, 426, 429, 433-440, 529, 535
greenhouse effect, 416
gyre transports, 438-439
history, 415-416
interannual variability, 444
interdecadal variability, 337-338, 416, 432-441
intermediate-time-scale, 426-427
low-frequency variability, 251
Mikolajewicz-Maier-Reimer model, 399-401
mixed-layer processes, 417
North Atlantic, 337-338, 432-441
North Pacific, 416
oceanic components, 399, 433, 444
problems/issues, 251, 414, 416, 417, 419-431
research needs, 417-418
salinity component, 416, 434-436, 441
sea-ice component, 399, 433, 441
sea surface temperature, 417, 434-436, 444-445
solar forcing, 415
surface-flux adjustments, 433
thermohaline circulation, 130, 131, 171, 380-381, 399, 416, 417, 432-441
tropical Pacific Ocean, 1
Zebiak-Cane, 443-457
Crosby, Nebraska, 63
Cryosphere.
See also Sea ice;
Snow cover
influence on climate processes, 8
C.S.S. Hudson,297, 298
Cyclones, 52, 90, 91, 311, 313
D
Dakar, 35
Danish Meteorological Institute, 254, 258
Dansgaard-Oeschger events, 543
Darwin, sea level pressure, 461, 464, 465, 501
Data archeology, 14
Davis Strait, 296
Denmark
cloud cover, 92
temperatures, 87
Denmark Strait, 239, 282-283, 286, 289, 290, 295, 297, 300, 302, 303, 305-317, 537, 538
Denmark Strait Overflow Water, 282-283, 291, 317, 383
Density, ocean
modeling, 399
North Atlantic, 436-439
thermohaline circulation and, 436-439
Desertification, 46, 48, 89-90
Devon Island Ice Cap, 24, 259, 554
Documenting climate variations.
See also Instrumental record
pre-instrumental period, 23-28
twentieth century vs. previous centuries, 17-31
Drake Passage, 402, 404, 405, 537
Droughts
African, 35
Dust Bowl period, 6, 12, 19, 468, 469
paleolimnological record, 510-511
reversal, 47
Sahel, 12, 15, 19, 21. 37, 41, 42, 44-48, 468, 469
sea surface temperatures and, 41, 45
Dunde Ice Cap, 24, 27-28, 29, 549, 550, 554
Dust generation
and temperature, 573
volcanic, 184-185
E
Earth Observing System (EOS), 14-15
Earth Resources Satellite-1, 508
East Africa, rainfall, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41
East Australian Current. 528
East Greenland Current, 255, 258, 294, 295, 310, 311, 312, 325, 379 , 382
East Icelandic Current, 310
Ecological effects of climate change, 555-567, 572-582
Ecosystem changes, marine.
See also Plants
anthropogenic sources, 567
California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations, 564-566
community structure and, 559-560
competition/predation theory, 558-559
continuous plankton recorder surveys, 563-564
direct measurement of, 562-567
fishery data, 239, 306-309, 318, 317, 473, 492, 560-562, 564-566
nitrogen-flow model, 351-352
perturbations and, 558-559
plankton, 457, 473, 492, 537-541, 556, 557, 563-564, 568-570
as proxy indicators of climate change, 239, 306-309, 317, 473, 491
Scripps pier data, 566-567
sediment records, 562
trophic structure and, 559-560
Ecuador, rainfall, 466
Ekman, V. W., 318
Ekman drift, 397
Ekman transport, 369-370
El Chichón, 59, 194, 196, 206-207
El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon.
See also Southern Oscillation;
TOGA Program
base-state forcings, 443, 445-448, 453, 457, 459, 463-465, 466, 468 , 469, 470
biological responses to, 457
century-scale variability, 416, 465-466, 469, 501-503
chaotic nonlinear dynamics, 449, 468
characteristics, 6-7, 53, 190, 499
coral records, 496, 498, 499-504, 505
cycle, 355, 442-471, 499, 502-503, 509
interdecadal-scale variability, 416, 456
internal dynamics, 451-452
and lake-level and surface-area changes, 508-509
models/modeling, 242, 246, 247, 400, 416-417, 418, 426, 429, 439, 442-457
natural "noise" and, 443, 448-451, 453, 456, 457
and North Pacific climate, 473, 478-481
and ocean circulation, 499, 500
origin of, 99
proxy data, 453-454, 459, 460-461, 471, 496, 498, 550
and rainfall patterns, 39, 41, 48, 442-443, 453, 460, 461, 464, 466 , 468-469, 470, 499, 500, 501-502
research needs, 471
and sea level changes, 230, 271, 499
and sea level pressure, 459, 460, 461-466, 468, 479-480, 501
seasonal variations, 448
secular variability, 458-471
sunspot activity and, 193, 443, 509
temperature and, 31, 53, 99, 103, 105-106, 115, 167, 190, 202-204, 207, 208, 209, 246, 355-356, 444-448, 450, 454, 459, 460, 461-462, 464-468, 470-471, 478, 499, 500, 502, 515-516
and thermohaline circulation, 470
tracer studies, 500-501
underwater tectonic activity and, 443
volcanic eruptions and, 443, 471
Eliassen-Palm theorems, 341
Energy-balance models, 165, 176, 178, 181-182, 364
England
central, temperature changes, 24, 28, 131, 167, 259, 517, 532
English Channel, 563
ERICA program, 423
Erika Dan, 297
Espiritu Santo Island, 498
Eurasia
runoff, 262
temperatures, 19-20, 22, 28, 191
Eurasian Basin Bottom Water, 287
Eurasian Basin Deep Water, 287
Eurocore project, 550
Europe
aerosol forcing, 94
cloud cover, 92
cyclones, 52
polar seas, 286-288
precipitation, 191
re-analysis modeling projects, 16
temperatures, 81, 86, 123, 191, 516-517, 520, 522
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, 53, 113, 114, 115, 119, 141
F
Faeroe-Shetland Channel, 292, 294, 306, 309, 325, 537
Fennoscandia, temperature reconstructions, 518-519, 522
Fickian relationships, 340, 341, 344
Filcher ice shelf, 262
Finland, temperatures, 85
Fisheries, 239, 306-309, 318, 317, 473, 492, 560-562, 564-566
Floods, African river, 37
Florida, temperatures, 473, 475
Florida Bay, 498
Florida State University, 141
Food webs, 559-560
Fossil record
coleoptera assemblages, 534, 535, 545
plankton assemblages, 537-541
Fylla Bank, 300
G
Galapagos archipelago, corals, 498, 500, 501, 503-504, 505
GATE program, 423
General-circulation models.
See also Atmospheric models;
Coupled general-circulation models;
Ocean models
assessment of, 56-57
COLA model, 46
diurnal temperature range, 90, 92-94, 96
greenhouse-warming projections, 18
land masks, 59
mixed-layer ocean, 189
polar amplification of climate perturbations, 165
ramp warming, 174
runoff in, 56
signal-to-noise ratios, 59
soil moisture in, 56
snow feedbacks, 52-54, 56-57, 58, 59
Southern Hemisphere atmospheric, 115-116, 119
sunspot cycles in, 191-193
of surface temperature, 176
three-dimensional, 166
two-dimensional, 165-166
volcanic eruptions in, 184-185
Geochemical Ocean Sections (GEOSECS) program, 290, 291
Geopotential, anomalies, 112, 113-114, 115, 426
Glacial-to-interglacial transition, 545, 552-553
Glaciers, 16, 27, 55-56, 191, 259
Global Climate Observing System (GCOS), 15, 336
Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System (GOALS) Program, 336, 423
Global Ocean Observing System, 239, 288, 336
Global Sea Ice and Sea Surface Temperature (GISST) data set
assessment of, 227-228, 246-247
creation, 242
quality control, 242-246
revisions to, 247-248
Global Telecommunications System (GTS), 68, 81
Global Weather Experiment, 115
Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 54
Grand Banks (Newfoundland), 291, 293, 294, 296
Great Barrier Reef, 498-499
Great Lakes, 358
Great Ocean Conveyor loop, 537
Great Salinity Anomaly
Arctic climate cycle and, 121, 254-255, 259
biological effects, 309-310
chronology, 309-310
and deep-water formation, 121, 190, 239, 382
ice and salinity anomalies, 255-261, 311-312
Iceland Sea freshening, 383
path, 299-300, 302, 309, 317, 325
periodicity, 313-314, 315, 322
sea ice and, 131, 239, 255, 311-312
and temperature, 190, 255, 326
and thermohaline circulation, 316
tree-ring reconstructions, 326-327
Great Salt Lake, 358
Greenhouse effect
detection of, 169-174, 179, 530-531
ENSO phenomenon and, 453
modeling, 416
paleoclimatic record, 172-174
temperatures, 18, 512, 576-577
tropospheric water vapor and, 15
Greenhouse gases.
See also specific gases
counteracting factors, 18
models/modeling, 166
and natural climate variability, 188, 194-196, 198
and precipitation, 15
sensitivity of climate to, 208
and soil moisture, 93
Greenland
biological exchanges between Iceland and, 306-309
cyclones, 52
ice cores, 194, 259, 367, 534, 535, 540, 550-553, 600
ice sheet, 272, 363, 492-493, 521, 540
Ice Core Project (GRIP), 550
Ice Sheet Project (GISP), 55, 543, 545, 546, 548, 550
snow cover, 64
temperatures, 24, 27, 28, 59, 600
Greenland Ridge, 311
Greenland-Scotland Ridge, 315, 383
Greenland Sea
chlorofluorocarbons, 278
convection, 259-260, 315, 316, 317, 382
deep-water formation, 286, 287, 303, 366, 382
density, 438
freshening, 311
model, 131
overturning, 378
salinity, 255, 258-259, 289, 293, 294, 309, 310, 312, 325, 382
sea ice, 189, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258-259, 260, 261, 262, 312, 314
temperatures, 316
tracer studies, 286-288
warming trend, 130
Greenland Sea Deep Water, 286, 287, 316
Greenland Sea Surface Water, 287
Guinea Coast, rainfall, 34, 38
Gulf of
California, 503
Chiriquí, 503
Gulf Stream
and air temperature, 207
models/modeling, 353-354
North Atlantic winter patterns, 125-128
recirculation, 319
separation structure, 343, 345
temperatures, 122, 123, 125-126, 130, 132, 272
transport changes, 130
Guliya ice caps, 554
H
Haline catastrophe theory, 315.
See also Polar halocline catastrophe
Halocarbons, tracer studies, 275-276, 277-279.
See also Carbon tetrachloride;
Chlorofluorocarbons
Healy, Kansas, 63
Heat exchange.
See also Evaporation
North Atlantic conveyor belt, 533, 534-535, 536-537
Pacific basin, 134-139, 142-144, 478
parameterizations, 134, 135-136, 147
poleward heat transport, 366-367, 371, 375-376, 379
standing-eddy poleward transport, 261
thermohaline circulation and, 19, 366-367, 369-370, 375-376, 384, 391, 394, 427, 528-529
Heat fluxes
Atlantic conveyor, 536-537
atmospheric circulation and, 119, 128, 136-139, 147-148, 165, 440
errors in, 135-136
calculations, 135-136, 142, 219
interior of the earth, 95
monthly variability, 134
Pacific Ocean, 134, 473, 474, 476
sea surface temperature and, 134, 137-139, 141, 143, 147, 219-221
total surface, 141
vertical distribution, 165
Historical documents, climate reconstructions from, 420, 460, 492, 493, 516, 517, 602
Hobart, sea level pressure, 527-528
Holocene epoch, 259, 363, 550-551, 552, 553
Huaynaputina eruption, 549
Human activities, and Sahel drought, 46, 48
Humidity, 90-92
Hurricanes, 367
Hydrological cycle, 8, 74, 261, 362
Hydrological model, 277
Hydrology, surface, snow cover and, 53
I
Ice. See Sea ice
Ice-albedo feedback, 1, 8, 15, 57, 165
Ice cores.
See also Oxygen-isotope records
applications, 492
and atmospheric carbon dioxide, 167, 194-195, 493
century-to-millennial-scale climate variability, 366
decade-to-century-scale climate variability, 544-554
electroconductivity, 543, 548, 552, 554
as environmental archives. 545-547
nonpolar, 547-550
North Atlantic climate, 367, 492-493, 534
ocean circulation data, 370
polar, 530-553
precipitation reconstructions, 55, 259, 550
properties measured in, 548, 551
research literature, 546
seasonal cycles, 31
sensitivity, 521
source of records, 24, 27-28, 259
Southern Hemisphere climate, 118, 119
sunspot cycles, 192
temperature reconstructions, 29, 167, 493, 517, 521, 534, 535, 574-575, 581, 600
time span, 554
Iceland, 127, 131, 167, 306-309, 312, 314, 517
Iceland low, 311
Iceland-Scotland Overflow, 291, 383
Iceland Sea
deep-water formation, 366, 537
overturning, 378
salinity anomalies, 254, 289, 294, 312-313, 314, 325, 379
sea ice, 255, 256, 257, 258-259, 260, 551, 552
tritium/krypton ratios, 282
India
cloud cover, 92
rainfall, 45, 48, 51-52, 53, 442-443, 453, 468-469
Indian Ocean, 113, 246, 260, 404, 493, 509, 510
Indo-Pacific Deep Water, 315
Infrared imagery, 238
Institute of Hydrology, 509
Instrumental record
limitations, 421-423
literature review, 461
ocean hydrographic and current structure, 423
operational data, 602-603
singular spectrum analysis, 462-463
temperature, 18-23, 421-423, 516
time-series analysis, 461-462
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, 319
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 56-57, 81, 89, 119, 167-168, 184, 209, 475, 573, 576, 581
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 318
International Geophysical Year, 237
International Satellite Cloud Cover Project (ISCCP), 14, 15, 95, 96
Intertropical Convergence Zone, 277, 366
Ireland, rainfall, 327
Irminger Current, 296, 306, 308, 309, 316
Irminger Sea, 239, 254, 255, 258, 291, 296, 297, 303, 305-317
J
Japan
cloud cover, 92
marine observations, 247
meteorological network, 88, 89
temperatures, 81, 82, 84, 85, 88, 89, 95
Japanese Meteorological Institute, 53
K
Kalahari region, rainfall, 34, 38, 39, 42
Kansas, snow cover, 61
Khartoum, 35
Klementinum Observatory, 85-87
Koch ice index, 131, 167, 259, 312, 313, 314
Ksudach eruption, 207
L
Labrador Basin, 302
Labrador Current, 295, 296, 297, 325
Labrador Sea
circulation, 291, 295-296, 297, 326
cod-larvae drift, 309
convection, 283, 302, 313, 376, 378-379, 438
deep-water formation, 121, 291, 319, 375, 379, 381, 536-537, 538
density anomalies, 438
meridional geostrophic flow, 376-377
overturning, 375, 376-377, 379
pressure, 379
salinity, 293, 294, 295-304, 325
sea-ice extent, 121, 129, 130, 131, 189, 258-259, 314
and thermohaline circulation, 263, 384, 395
topography, 380
Labrador Sea Water
chlorofluorocarbons, 278
convection, 299
density, 298-299
freshening, 383
properties, 296-297
salinity, 239, 291, 297, 299, 300, 302
Lake levels and surface area
and decade-to-century variability, 506-511
and drought, 510-511
and ENSO phenomenon, 508-509
evidence for past fluctuations, 508
monitoring recommendations, 511
and ocean-atmosphere interactions, 493
and precipitation, 492
sea surface temperatures and, 509-510
and surface water balance, 507-508
temperature reconstructions from, 118
and tropical climate, 506-511
Land-surface feedback
and rainfall variability, 41-43, 46
snow and, 53-54
temperature and, 54
Land temperature (surface air).
See also Air temperature
anomalies, 19-21, 85, 87, 202-203, 356
area-mean indices, 18-21
atmospheric circulation and, 117-118
decadal-scale variability, 18-21, 25-27, 209
desertification and, 89-90
globally averaged, 82, 89, 204
hemispheric means, 513-514
interannual variability, 12, 18-19, 21-23, 26-27, 29, 82-87
mean maximum and minimum, 81, 82-88
oxygen isotope record, 24, 27-28
seasonal patterns, 18-19, 25, 27, 28, 29, 82-85, 87, 201, 513-514, 600
spatial patterns, 19-20, 21-23, 29, 82-85, 600
sunspot cycle and, 15
urban heat islands and, 14, 88-89, 95
variability indexes, 27, 31, 124-128
volcanic eruptions and, 195
zonally averaged, 356
Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Geocryology, 61
Larson ice shelf, 262
Little Ice Age, 6, 28, 29, 37, 38, 55, 191, 192, 194, 195-196, 198, 272, 420, 466, 492, 524, 527, 530, 532, 547, 552, 574, 581-582
Logan, Mt., 354
M
Mackenzie River, 257, 262, 312
Madras, India, pressure, 464
Manganese, in corals, 498
Marshes, 491
Measurement.
See also Networks, meteorological
accuracies, 238
of chlorofluorocarbons, 275, 276, 278
measurement, 515
of salinity, 238
ship-based observations, 14, 119, 121, 134, 234-235
of temperature, 14, 121, 200, 206, 242, 238, 273, 319-320
of water velocity, 238
Medieval Warm Period, 38, 524, 527, 530, 551, 552
Mediterranean area, winter, 420
Mediterranean Outflow, 303
Meteor, 237
Meteorological Office Historical Sea Surface Temperature (MOHSST)
Data Set, 222-226, 242, 247, 251, 252
Methane, 195
Methodologies
averaging processes, 30, 33, 176-178
empirical-orthogonal-function analysis, 121, 122-124, 132, 136-139, 142, 148-149, 167, 176, 177-178, 180, 181, 190, 200, 201, 203, 260
maximum entropy, 100-104
mean-square-error formalism, 176-177
multi-taper method, 166-167
principal-component analysis, 112-114
rainfall averaging, 33
signal-processing approach, 175-181
singular spectrum analysis, 167, 181, 462-463
temperature averaging, 30, 99-100, 121-124, 176-178
theoretical-orthogonal-function analysis, 178-179, 180, 181
tracer studies, 274-289
tree growth, conversion to temperature, 24-25
Microwave radiation
temperature soundings, 200, 202, 204, 206, 238
Milcent, Greenland, 24
Ministerial North Sea Conference, 568
Minnesota, temperatures, 517
Miragoane, Lake, 510
Models/modeling.
See also Atmospheric models;
Coupled general-circulation models;
General-circulation models;
Ocean models;
Radiative-convective models
adjustments to data, 14
applications, 601
averaging artifacts, 59
diurnal temperature range, 90-92
needs, 603
numerical, 374-375, 425-429, 431
re-analysis projects, 16
sea ice, 140
stochastic, 355-364
target phenomena, 425-426, 429
temperature projections, 575-576
thermodynamic, 138, 165-166, 203, 210
Monin-Obukhov similarity theory, 347
Monitoring. See Climate monitoring;
Networks
Monsoons
African-Asian, 45
Asian, 51-52, 53, 442-443, 453, 496
ENSO and, 442-443, 453, 464, 468-469, 470
Southeast Asia, 53
Monthly Climatic Data of the World, 81
Mt. Pinatubo, 59
Mullard Space Science Laboratory, 508, 511
N
Nansen casts, 320
Napoleon, North Dakota, 78
Nashville, Tennessee, 312
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
GISS model, 227-228, 242-247, 535
National Center for Atmospheric Research, 57, 95, 119, 181
National Climatic Data Center, 20, 22
National Meteorological Center, 64, 205, 206, 400, 404-405
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Atlantic Climate Change Program, 239, 421, 423-425, 431
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, 278-279
data archeology, 14
data digitization, 326
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory model, 53, 353, 360, 380-381, 426, 429, 433-440, 529
sea surface temperatures, 247-248
snow charts, 14, 58, 61, 63-64
National Oceanographic Data Center, 319
National Science Foundation, data archeology, 14
National Snow and Ice Data Center (U.S. NSIDC), 61
National Weather Service (U.S.) stations, 68
Natural climate variability
Arctic cycle and, 259-260
biosphere and, 8
century-to-millennial scale, 366-367
climate change distinguished from, 6-7, 18, 19, 167-174, 461, 602
climate sensitivity and, 172
cryosphere and, 8
data needs, 602-603
decade-to-century scale, 398-406, 419-431
decadal-to-interdecadal scale, 367
defined, 1
geographic distribution, 196
land-surface processes and, 8
modeling, 167-168, 171-172, 187-198
ocean's role in, 234-235
passive internal, 171-172
quantifying, 170-172
types of variations, 6
volcanic aerosols and, 188, 193-194
Nema, 35
Networks, meteorological/climatological
automated surface-observing systems, 77, 88
global acoustic, 273
hydrographic-geochemical, 291
reference stations, 86
selection for studies, 69-70, 76
snowfall, 69
Southern Hemisphere, 112
station sites/siting, 48, 61, 77, 88-89, 119, 268
U.S. Historical Climatology Network, 69-70, 72, 77, 90
WMO/IAEA, 277
New Brunswick, New Jersey, 78-79
New Haven, Connecticut, temperatures, 517
New Orleans, Louisiana, 312
New Zealand, rainfall, 117
Newfoundland
sea ice, 255
temperatures, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 139, 255
Niger Delta, 37
Niger River, 37
Nome, Alaska, 366
NORPAX program, 237
North America.
See also Pacific-North American teleconnection pattern;
individual countries
cyclones, 52
droughts, 6, 12, 19, 52, 82, 85, 468-469, 470
precipitation, 14, 67-71, 73, 74-76, 255
runoff, 254-255, 258-259, 312, 314
snow cover, 52, 54-55, 61, 64, 66
streamflows, 76
temperatures, 19-20, 22, 24, 25, 28, 54, 81, 88, 134, 209, 473, 477, 516, 517, 522
North Atlantic Central Water, 306
North Atlantic Current, 295, 296, 319
North Atlantic Deep Water
circulation, 291, 319, 367, 385, 402-403
density, 301
fluxes, 304
formation, 263, 304, 319, 366, 367, 536-537, 538
glaciations and, 366
interruption of production, 303
millennial-scale changes, 315, 367
modeling, 396
net export, 537
Sverdrup transport, 262
thermohaline circulation and, 384
Younger Dryas cooling event and, 190-191, 538, 540
North Atlantic Drift, 294
North Atlantic Ocean
air-sea interactions, 121, 356-357, 359
air temperatures, 123, 125-128, 317, 533, 534, 600, 601
atmospheric circulation influences, 124-128, 424
century-scale variability, 366-367
climate variability, 355-364, 533-534, 571, 600
deep convection, 420
deep-water production, 198, 236, 239, 290, 302, 314-316, 327, 366
density variations, 324, 347, 421, 436-439
dipole pattern, 124-125
fishery data, 571
fresh-water flux, 366, 367, 371, 379-389
Gulf Stream pattern, 125-128, 07
heat transport, 533, 534-535, 536-537
interannual variability, 318-319, 420-421
interdecadal variability, 318-327, 374-380, 421, 424, 432-441
models, 337-338, 355-364, 374-380, 432-441
ocean temperature, 319-323
overturning, 337-338, 358-359, 372, 375, 376, 433-434
plankton surveys, 563-564, 571
poleward heat transport, 356, 379
pressures, 424
proxy records, 537-541
salinity, 21, 121, 131, 190, 191, 207, 239, 254, 290-294, 302, 309-314, 319-326, 359, 367, 434-436, 534-535, 600
structural changes, 420, 533-543
surface circulation, 537-541
surface temperatures, 122-128, 131, 139, 191, 260, 321-322, 420, 424, 433-436, 510, 533, 581
topography, 380
thermohaline circulation, 261, 337-338, 359-360, 366-383, 375-379, 380-381, 433-434, 534
ventilation, 291
Younger Dryas cooling event, 190-191, 367
North Atlantic Oscillation, 126-127, 130, 311, 312, 314, 317
North Dakota, snow cover, 61
North Pacific Ocean
atmospheric circulation, 21, 347, 472-474, 475, 476-478
climate shifts, 14, 15, 21, 146-147, 148, 600
decadal-scale variability, 416, 472-482
ecosystem changes, 473
heat exchanges, 142-143, 478, 478
mixed-layer depth, 140, 142-143
North American teleconnections, 472, 474, 475-477
ocean circulation, 475
pressure anomalies, 137, 139, 473, 474-476
salinity, 302
seasonal considerations, 475-476, 477-478
subarctic gyre, 276
subtropical gyre, 134
Sverdrup transport, 473, 475, 480, 481
temperature, 14, 78, 134, 138, 141, 142-144, 145-146, 206, 246, 426, 473-474, 475-476, 478
Tropical Pacific climate and, 473, 478-480
wind stresses, 472, 474, 475, 476, 482
North Sea, 267, 538-539, 559, 563, 564, 568-569
Northeast Atlantic Deep Water (NEADW), 297, 298, 300, 301, 302
Northern Gyre, 309
Northern Hemisphere
atmospheric circulation, 121
decadal-scale climate variations, 356
halocarbons, 277, 278, 279, 281, 282
heat transport, 261
instrumental record for, 422-423
krypton concentrations, 279
Little Ice Age, 38
pressure, 479
snow cover, 50, 54, 58, 62, 63, 64-65, 79
snowfall, 73-74
temperatures, 18-21, 73-74, 79, 82, 200-202, 204-207, 208, 209, 356, 513-514, 515, 518-519, 520, 535
Northern Oscillation, 459
Northwest Atlantic Bottom Water (NWABW), 297, 298, 301, 302
Norwegian Atlantic Current, 309
Norwegian Sea, 198, 232, 286-288, 294, 297, 310, 315, 366, 378, 379, 438, 538, 539
Norwegian Sea Deep Water, 286, 287
Norwegian Sea Surface Water, 287
Nouakchott, 35
Novaya Zemlya, 554
O
Ocean circulation.
See also Coupled atmospheric-oceanic circulation system;
Gulf Stream;
Thermohaline circulation;
and specific currents, gyres, and other features
abrupt changes in, 534-536
advection, 134, 143, 145-146, 147, 220, 371, 403-404
advectively dominated boundary currents, 283
and biological exchanges, 306-309
boundary conditions, 367-368, 381
buoyancy, 348
convection, 304
current velocities, 286
deep water, 2, 121, 198, 237, 238, 289, 290-294, 304
diffusion processes, 141, 143, 146, 313, 368-370, 383
equatorial downwelling, 368
horizontal structure, 403-404
intermediate-water component, 430
internal-wave breaking, 348, 350
isopycnals, 283
material-property mixing, 351
meridional structure, 261, 402-403
mesoscale eddies, 337, 341-344
mixed-layer depth, 140, 142-143, 145-146, 150, 182, 189, 196
overturning, 261, 289, 348, 368, 370, 371
paleoclimatic records, 196
planetary boundary-layer turbulence, 344-348, 353
salinity and, 534-535
shear, 348
sunspot activity and, 503
Sverdrup transport, 294, 473, 475, 480, 481
topographical form stress, 350-351
tracer studies, 274-289, 340, 384-385, 496
upwelling changes, 209, 496, 498, 499, 500, 503
vertical mixing/entrainment, 128, 140, 142-143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 220, 303, 304, 348-350, 498
VHR radiometer imaging, 232
water-mass age indicators, 280-281, 283, 285
western boundary currents, 370-371
wind-driven, 341-344
Ocean models/modeling.
See also Coupled general-circulation models
Barents-Greenland Sea, 131
biogeochemical processes, 351
Boolean delay equation, 255
boundary conditions, 337, 367-368, 381, 385-386, 391, 392, 393
boundary wave guide, 351
century time scales, 370
cloudiness, 141
current velocities, 389-390
data sources, 134-135, 140-141
decadal-to-interdecadal variability, 370-373
diffusive time-scale variability, 368-370
ecosystem, 351-352
forcing agents, 15, 140, 141, 148
fresh-water fluxes, 368, 369, 370, 373, 380
Hasselmann's model, 336, 357-358, 361, 363, 364, 430
heat-flux parameterization, 135-136, 141, 381, 391
ICE-3G, 235
interior vertical mixing, 348-350
intermediate-water formation, 382-383
internal ocean variability, 365-383
marine-weather-data adjustments, 141-142
material property mixing, 351
meridional overturning, 340
mesoscale eddies, 341-344, 380
mixed-layer depth, 140, 142-143, 145-146, 150
Modular Ocean Model, 385-386
North Atlantic circulation, 366, 373, 374-380
North Pacific basin, 15, 134-135, 140-147
numerical models, 374-375, 384
Oberhuber isopycnic ocean, 133-135, 140-147
overturning variability, 370-372
planetary boundary layers, 344-348, 353
planetary geostrophic model, 370
principles, 340-341
salinity, 140, 141, 149, 358, 374, 386, 391, 392-393
sea-ice parameterization, 351
semi-Lagrangian approaches, 354
stochastic forcing, 398-406
Stommel's model, 324, 337, 356-357, 358-359, 360, 363
stratification of layers, 363
sub-grid-scale parameterizations, 339-354
temperatures, 141, 374, 386-388, 390-391
thermally dominated regimes, 360-362
thermocline maintenance, 426
thermohaline circulation, 121, 355-364, 366, 367-374, 385-397, 399, 427, 433, 601
topography component, 350-351, 374, 380, 382, 430
turbulent kinetic energy, 140, 141
two-hemisphere sector, 385-397
types and applications, 336-338
vertical diffusivity, 340, 346-347, 389-390
wind stresses, 140, 141, 374, 380, 386, 399
wind/temperature relationships, 124
zonally symmetric forcing, 382
Ocean temperature.
See also Sea surface temperature
annual mean, 319-323
atmospheric circulation and, 119
averaging, 320-321
interdecadal variability, 239, 318-323
Labrador Sea, 300-301
North Atlantic Ocean, 319-324
and plankton abundance, 563, 565, 566
and salinity, 285, 294, 319-324, 402
speed-of-sound measurements of, 238, 273
tides and, 106
time series, 237
upper ocean, 319-322
Ocean Weather Ship/Station
Bravo, 297, 299, 313, 325, 326
Charlie, 319-323, 325, 326, 327
Papa, 347
Oceanographic data.
See also Ocean temperature;
Salinity;
Sea surface temperature;
Winds
bathythermographs, 237, 319-320, 321
history of observations, 237-238
instrument technology, 238-239
record, 12-13
surface marine, 241-252
Oregon Graduate Center, 278-279
Oxygen-isotope records. 24, 27-28, 29, 259, 367, 420, 496, 500-503, 517, 521, 534, 535, 540. 545, 550, 574
Ozone, 59
Ozone depletion, 165
P
Pacific-North American teleconnection pattern, 137, 139, 146, 200-201, 205, 416, 472, 473, 474, 475-477, 480
Pacific Ocean.
See also North Pacific Ocean;
Tropical Pacific Ocean
air-sea heat exchange, 134-139
atmospheric-circulation anomalies, 115, 118, 140-141
mixed-layer depth, 140
model, 140-147
seasonal-to-interannual fluctuations, 133-150
surface temperatures, 137-139, 203, 246, 260
surface variability, 134
turbulent kinetic energy, 140
wind stresses, 140-141
Pakistan, temperatures, 87
Paleoclimatic record.
See also Proxy records
and ENSO phenomenon, 453-454, 460-461
and greenhouse effect, 172-174
interpretation, 23, 24-25, 172-174, 196
needs, 602
usefulness, 19
Paleo-ENSO International Symposium, 460
Panama Basin, 503
Panel on Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming, 579
Past Global Changes project (PAGES), 425, 427
Patagonia, Argentina, temperatures, 24, 518-519
Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level, 265, 267
Peru
Phase lags, 105, 114, 174, 202-203, 248, 258-259, 300, 312, 314, 367
Philippines, 498
Pic du Midi de Bigorre Observatory, 87, 92
Pilot balloon data, 48
Pinatubo, Mt., 184-185, 194, 206-207
Planetary Upper-air Frontal Zone, 51
Plankton, 457, 473, 492, 537-541, 556, 557, 563-566, 568-570
Plants
effects of short-scale climate fluctuations, 577
microclimatic requirements, 576-577
spatial variations in microclimate, 577-578
Point Barrow, Alaska, 276
Polar Deep Water, 316
Polar gyres, 481
Polar halocline catastrophe, 361, 368, 370, 380
Polar Water, 312
Pollen assemblages, climate change reconstructions, 545
POLYMODE program, 423
Prague, Czech Republic, 85
Precipitation.
See also Rainfall;
Snowfall
century-scale changes, 69, 74-75, 76
data processing, 70-71
decade-scale changes, 74
global, 195
greenhouse warming and, 18
instrument record, 10
interannual variability, 12, 69, 73-74, 75, 76
land, 195
mean annual, 69
North America, 14, 67-71, 74-76
quality of data, 14
regional shifts or jumps, 600
sea surface temperature and, 191, 255, 261
snow cover and, 50
soil moisture and, 414
streamflow and, 74-75
topography and, 68
volcanic eruptions and, 195
Pressure
and atmospheric circulation, 116, 117, 118
ENSO phenomenon and, 459, 460, 462-466, 479-480
and heat fluxes, 137
sea level, 112, 116, 124-127, 137, 202, 248, 255, 260, 308, 367, 420, 424, 459, 460, 462-466, 473, 474-476, 479-480, 527-528, 532
sea surface temperature and, 124-128, 191
and storm tracks, 137
and Tasmanian climate, 527-528, 432
and winds, 119, 124-127, 248, 308
zonally asymmetric fields, 117
Projections of climate change, 18, 74
Proxy records.
See also Ice cores;
Paleoclimatic record;
Tree-ring records
atmospheric, 492-493
defined, 7
ENSO phenomenon, 453-454, 459, 460-461, 471
future of, 494
history of, 490-491
integration of information from, 31
limitations, 31, 420, 425, 453, 493-494
model validation with, 427, 429, 493
needs, 602
North Atlantic circulation, 537-541
recommendations, 607
span, 18
temperature reconstructions from, 7, 18, 23-27, 31, 117-118
types and applications, 420, 490
Puget Sound, 473
Puerto Chicama, Peru, 500-501
Puerto Rico, 499
Punta Pitt, Isla San Cristobal, 500-501
Q
Quelccaya Ice Cap, 24, 27-28, 29, 31, 454, 461, 547, 549-550, 554
R
Radar altimeters, 238
Radiation balance, modeling, 165
Radiative-convective models, 92, 165, 347, 348
Radiative transfer
heat fluxes and, 136
ice-albedo feedback and, 1, 165
Rainfall.
See also Precipitation
Aleutian Low and, 476
anomalies, 33-36, 38-39, 44, 45
atmospheric circulation and, 41, 42, 117
averaging methods, 33
causes of variability, 41-43
century-scale fluctuations, 37-38
decadal-scale variations, 32, 33-38, 43
ENSO phenomenon and, 39, 41, 48, 442-443, 453, 460, 461, 464, 466, 468-469, 499, 500, 501-502
interannual variability, 34, 38-41, 117
land-surface feedback and, 41-43
latitude and, 33
North Pacific climate changes and, 473, 476
periodicities, 39
proxy data, 37, 43, 499, 500, 501
research needs, 43
sea surface temperature and, 39, 41, 45, 46, 48, 327, 509
seasonal fluctuations, 39-41, 117
teleconnections, 35-37, 41, 42, 43
Recommendations, 2-3, 16, 606-607
Reforestation, 46
Research needs
African rainfall fluctuations, 43
for coupled modeling, 417-418, 429
data collection, 603
ENSO phenomenon, 471
identification of key variables, 606
modeling, 606-607
proxy data, 607
snow cover, 65-66
temperature, 95
Reykjanes Peninsula, 307-308
Rift Valley, 35
Rio Alerce, Argentina, temperatures, 24
River flows, temperature reconstructions from, 118
Ronne ice shelf, 262
Ross Sea, 384
Rossby waves, 53, 91, 116, 443
Runoff
and Arctic climate cycle, 129, 254-255, 257, 258-259, 262, 312, 314, 315
coral records, 498
and deep-water production, 315, 367
modeling, 380
from snow melt, 55
sea surface temperature and, 255, 261
Russian Academy of Sciences, 61
S
Sahel
drought, 12, 15, 19, 21, 37, 41, 44-48, 468, 469, 470
land-surface feedback, 15, 41-43, 45-46
limnological records, 509-510
rainfall variability, 32, 33, 35-37, 38-39, 41, 44, 45, 48, 260, 367, 510, 600
topography, 45
Salinity, oceanic.
See also Great Salinity Anomaly
annual mean, 319-320
anomalies, 21, 121, 131, 190, 191, 207, 239, 254, 255-261, 295-304, 309-314, 370, 377-378, 397, 403
atmospheric circulation and, 294
boundary conditions on, 368
and deep-water formation, 289
empirical-orthogonal-function analysis, 400, 402, 403
interdecadal variability, 239, 261
model characterization, 140-141, 149, 358, 363, 368, 416
North Atlantic, 319-324, 322, 434-436, 534-535
and ocean circulation, 534-535
periodicity, 313-314
and plankton abundance, 563, 565, 566
pressure and, 310-311
sea ice and, 131, 255-261, 311-312, 441
sea surface, 294, 325, 368, 377-378, 379-380, 434-436
spatial distribution, 404
and temperature, 207, 285, 294, 314, 402
and thermohaline circulation, 207-208, 357-361, 362, 370, 434-436
time series, 299-300
San Francisco, 266, 267, 268, 269
Satellite observations
lake levels and surface area, 508, 509
needs, 603
of sea-level changes, 270
temperatures, 200, 238, 247-248, 539
usefulness of, 14
Scandinavia, temperatures, 24, 25
Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR), 62, 64
Scatterometers, 238
Scotland-Iceland Ridge, 283
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 561, 566-567
Sea ice
and air temperatures, 189, 251, 551
Arctic climate cycle and, 129, 254-255, 424
boundary areas, 244-245
data sources, 243, 247, 251, 252, 254, 258
decadal-scale fluctuations, 13, 189, 254
extent, 121, 130, 231, 254, 255-256, 258-259, 367
formation, 289
GISST data set, 227-228, 242-247
great ice and salinity anomalies (GISAs), 255-261, 311-312
interannual variability, 254
models/modeling, 140, 351, 399, 426, 433
and North Atlantic Oscillation, 130
North Pacific climate and, 473
runoff and, 257-259
and salinity, 131, 255-261, 262, 311-312, 441
and sea level, 272
and sea surface temperature, 129, 223, 224, 226, 231, 244-245, 248, 260
and surface albedo, 260
Sea level
acceleration of change, 267-270
low-frequency variations, 267, 270, 272
models, 265
post-glacial rebound. 265
pressure, 112, 116, 124-127, 137, 202, 248, 255, 308, 367, 420, 424, 459, 460, 462-466, 527-528
quasi-biennial oscillation, 229-230, 270-271, 426
sea ice and, 272
seasonal variation, 272
vertical crust movements and, 265
and wind-stress curl. 272
Sea surface temperature (SST) .
See also Temperature;
Ocean temperature
absolute values, 243
and African rainfall patterns, 39, 41, 45, 46, 48
air-sea heat exchanges, 134-139, 147
anomalies, 21, 45, 124-128, 131, 137-140, 142-147, 202-203, 221-226, 241, 242, 243, 251, 260, 306, 314, 367, 377-378, 424, 439, 444-448, 450, 454, 454, 455, 459, 461-462, 464-467, 501
Arctic, 31
and atmospheric circulation, 124- 128, 261, 327, 414, 424, 478
averaging techniques, 30, 227-228, 245-246, 466
biennial-scale, 122-125
cloud cover and, 189
convection and, 262
coral reconstructions, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502
decadal-scale variations, 118, 122-125, 128, 189, 327
empirical orthogonal function analysis, 122-124, 132, 136-139, 142, 148-149, 260, 402, 445-446, 469, 474
ENSO phenomenon and, 202, 444-448, 450, 454, 455, 459, 461-462, 464-467, 479-480, 499, 500
and entrainment, 220
and equatorial upwelling, 209
and fresh-water fluxes, 399
GISST data set, 227-228, 242-247
global mean, 241
and Gulf Stream, 125-126
and heat-flux anomalies, 134, 137-139, 141, 145, 147, 148, 219-221
and horizontal advection, 220
Indian Ocean, 509
interannual fluctuations, 121, 210, 261, 322
Labrador Sea, 296
and lake-level and surface-area changes, 509
Levitus data sets, 366, 368, 379-380
mapping, 238
MOHSST data set, 222-226, 242, 247, 251
North Atlantic Ocean, 122-124, 131, 139, 191, 321-322, 326, 420, 422, 424, 433-436, 439, 510, 539, 581
North Pacific Ocean, 14, 141, 142-144, 426, 473-474, 476-477
phase lags, 367
and precipitation, 191, 255, 261, 327, 510
records, 14, 119, 121, 134, 242, 247, 422, 454, 455, 496
satellite-based, 247-248
sea ice and, 129, 223, 224, 226, 244-245, 247, 260
tropical Pacific, 29, 448, 496
and upper-air temperatures, 209
verification of, 239
wind and, 121, 124-125, 128, 145, 307
winter, 221
Seasons and seasonal cycles.
See also Summer;
Winter
aerosol forcing, 94
atmospheric variability, 112-113
cloud cover, 92
ENSO and, 448
heat-flux anomalies, 136-139
monthly means converted to, 121-122
North Pacific climate variations, 475-476, 477-478
precipitation trends, 79
rainfall fluctuations, 39-41
sea level, 272
snow cover, 54, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66
temperature trends, 79, 82, 84-85, 92, 94, 136-139, 146-147, 221, 436, 516, 520
wind-stress curl, 272
Seasonal Ice Zone Experiment (SIZEX), 231
Seawater
density changes, 300-301
speed-of-sound measurements in, 238, 273
UNESCO equations of state, 399
Sediments/sedimentation
anthropogenic influences on fish populations, 562
bioturbation, 538
deep-sea, 314-315, 381, 425, 491, 536, 538, 574
ice-volume changes, 574
ocean-circulation reconstructions, 535
rates, 491-492
and thermohaline circulation, 314-315
time scales for, 235
varve chronologies, 43, 492, 493
Severnaya Zemlya Ice Cap, 554
Siberia
Siberian River, 255
Signal detection. See Climate-signal detection
Snow cover
annual variability, 61, 64, 65
and atmospheric circulation, 50-58, 414
century time scales, 54-57
and cyclones, 52
decadal variations, 49, 54-57, 60-66
ENSO link, 53-54
interannual variations, 51
marginal snow zone, 55
measurement problems, 14, 54, 61, 78
modeling studies, 52-54, 56-57, 58
NASA microwave files, 14, 61-62, 64
and natural climate variability, 49-59
NOAA weekly charts, 14, 58, 61, 63-64, 65, 79
observational studies, 50-52, 54-56, 61-65
and precipitation forecasts, 50
and runoff, 55
and seasonal cycles, 54, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66
span of records, 55
and temperature, 52, 53, 54-55, 57, 79, 90-92
and upper-air geopotential, 53
Snow products, 61, 63-64, 65-66
Snowfall
data processing, 70-71
decade-scale changes, 73-74, 77-78
and ENSO events, 55
measurement, 68, 69, 71-73, 78
rates, 53
scale corrections, 71-73
Soil moisture
greenhouse gases and, 93
and temperature, 53, 57, 89-90, 93
Solar radiation
and temperature, 90-92
top of the atmosphere, 90-92
Soudano-Guinean Zone, rainfall, 34, 38
Sound-fixing and ranging (SOFAR) channel, 273
South Africa
meteorological network, 88
pressure, 116
Weather Bureau, 116
South America
rainfall, 117
temperatures, 27
South Atlantic region, temperature anomalies, 21, 260
South Pacific
anticyclone high, 116-117
models, 145
South Pacific Convergence Zone, 119, 457
South Pole, 55
Southern California Bight, 567
Southern Hemisphere
atmospheric circulation, 13, 111-119
halocarbons, 277
krypton concentrations, 279
low-frequency variability, 251
meteorological network, 201
storm tracks, 115-116, 118, 119
temperatures, 81, 82, 201, 202, 204, 206, 207, 208, 513-514, 518-519, 523-532
Southern Ocean, 243, 246, 247, 248, 261, 315, 386
Southern Oscillation.
See also El Niño/Southern Oscillation phenomenon
and atmospheric-circulation anomalies, 117, 118
characteristics, 402-403, 459, 499, 503, 504
decadal variability, 117
Index (SOI), 117, 202, 461, 478, 479, 501-502, 509, 515-516, 574
South Pacific anticyclones, 117
and temperature, 573-574
Walker circulation and, 356
Soviet Union (former)
cloud cover, 92
meteorological network, 88, 89
snow-cover data, 61
temperatures, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89
Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I), 62, 65
St. Petersburg, 517
Stockholm, Sweden, 266, 268, 269, 517
Storm tracks, 115-116, 118, 119, 137, 327, 473, 478
Straits of Indonesia, 537
Stratosphere
temperature, 206-207
ozone depletion, 165
UV radiation absorption, 193
Streamflows, 74-75, 76, 473, 476
Strontium, in corals, 498
Subarctic gyre, 276, 324, 358, 359, 361, 362, 363
Sub-Arctic Intermediate Water, 385
Subpolar gyre, 121, 129, 131, 239, 254, 260, 299-300, 306, 309, 310, 313, 314, 325, 370, 371
Subsurface floats, 238
Subtropical Convergence Zone, 385
Subtropical gyre, 129, 131, 134, 239, 272, 322, 324, 370, 371, 383, 481-542
Sudan
meteorological network, 88
temperatures, 81, 82, 84, 87, 88
Sulawesi, 504
Sulfate aerosols
fallout rate, 94
and greenhouse warming, 18
and precipitation, 15
residence times, 94
Sulfur emissions, 94
Summer.
See also Seasons and seasonal cycles
continent-ocean contrasts, 112, 114-115
temperatures, 25, 27, 28, 29, 117-118, 167, 492, 517-520
wave trains, 114
Sunspot cycles
and carbon dioxide, 97-99
decadal-scale variations, 98
and ENSO phenomenon, 193, 443, 509
Hale, 192
Maunder Minimum, 192, 196, 529-530
Medieval Solar Maximum, 529, 530
and natural climate variability, 188, 191-193, 197, 198
and ocean circulation, 503
periodicities, 192
response detection, 176, 178-179
Spörer Minimum, 529-530
and temperatures, 15, 97-99, 178-179, 192-193, 529-530, 532, 600
and ultraviolet radiation, 193, 194, 197
Surface albedo.
See also Snow cover
sea ice and, 260
Surface drifters, 238
Surface temperature. See Air temperature;
Land temperature;
Sea surface temperature;
specific regions and countries
Svalbard Ice Cap, 554
Swiss Alps, 55
Switzerland, temperatures, 517, 535
Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 238
T
Tahiti, mean sea level pressure, 461-462, 464, 465, 466, 479
Tanzania, rainfall, 40
Tarawa coral records, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504
Tasman Sea, 527
Tasmania, Australia
links to climate system of, 527-530
temperature reconstructions, 24, 25, 167, 518-519, 523-532, 600
Temperatures, general or combined.
See also Air temperature;
Land surface temperature;
Surface air temperature;
Sea surface temperature
adjustments to data, 14
global mean, 13, 14, 18, 170-174, 184, 210, 520, 572-582
greenhouse warming and, 18, 572-582
instrument record, 10, 199-200
interannual variability measures, 21
natural variability in, 187
periodicity, 600
phase lags, 202-203
quality of data, 81
reconstructions from proxy data, 7, 18, 23-27, 31, 117-118
volcanic eruptions and, 184
Thermal-ionization mass spectrometry, 498, 505
Thermohaline circulation
Arctic fresh-water forcing and topography, 379-380
atmospheric forcing. 239, 294, 399
boundary conditions, 129, 367-368, 385, 391, 392, 393, 427
buoyancy flux and, 366
century-scale variability, 370
and climate change, 190, 315-316, 366
collapse of, 369-370
convection and, 315 -316, 392-393
currents, 389
Deacon Cell, 388
decade-to-century-scale variability, 373-374, 380, 396
decadal-to-interdecadal variability, 130, 131, 167, 190, 262, 316, 370-373, 375-376, 424, 432-441
and deep-water production, 121, 393
density (ocean) and, 361, 366, 436-439
diffusion processes, 368-370
ENSO phenomenon and, 470-471
Great Salinity Anomaly and, 316
and heat exchanges, 19, 366-367, 369-370, 375-376, 384, 391, 394, 427, 528-529
hemispheric variability, 391-395
intermediate-water formation, 393
measurement of, 385
mechanisms in, 263, 371-372, 376-379, 384
models/modeling, 2, 130, 131, 171, 172, 316, 336-338, 356-359, 366, 367-374, 385-397, 416, 417, 420, 427, 432-441, 528-529, 601
North Atlantic, 130, 360, 366, 375-379, 380-381, 432-441, 534
North Atlantic Deep Water and, 314-316
oscillations, 2, 129, 174, 260-261, 357, 391-395
overturning, 261, 366, 367, 369, 370, 393
response time, 417
salinity and, 207-208, 357-361, 362, 366, 370, 391, 394, 434-436, 438
sinking regions, 366, 384, 388, 391, 395, 433-434, 437-438
stable regimes, 262, 315, 367, 386-391, 399, 420
subtropical gyre sensitivity to, 542
symmetric restoring temperatures, 386-388, 389
and temperature, 327, 356-359, 361, 362, 366, 386-388, 390-391, 434-436, 438, 439
trans-equatorial, 121
velocities, 387, 390, 393, 395
TOGA Program, 239, 303, 336, 421, 423
TOPEX/POSEIDON data, 270
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, temperatures, 516, 517, 521
Tracer studies.
See also Transient tracers
cod/haddock eggs and larvae, 306-309
ENSO phenomenon, 460
geochemical data, 602
mesoscale eddies and, 341-342
model validation, 426
Transpolar Drift Stream, 255, 258, 312
Trans-Polar Index, 117
Transient tracers
Atlantic Deep Western Boundary Current, 283-285
boundary conditions, 276-280
carbon-14, 238, 276, 279-280, 381
data sets, 288
European polar seas, 286-287
evaluation of data, 283
halocarbons, 238, 275-276, 277-279, 281-282, 283, 381
meridional overturning and, 340
ratios, 280-283
time-series examples, 283-287
tritium/3He, 238, 275, 276-277, 280-281, 282-283
Transient Tracers in the Ocean/North Atlantic Study (TTO/NAS), 291, 294, 297
Tree-ring records.
See also specific locations
alerce trees (Fitzroya cupressoides), 494
ENSO cycle, 460-461
Great Salinity Anomaly, 326-327
growth-trend adjustments, 532
history of use, 490-491
Huon pine (Lagarostrobos franklinii C.J. Quinn), 524
interpretation of, 23-25, 491, 519
precipitation reconstructions from, 521
sensitivity of, 521
singular spectrum analysis, 525-527
temperature reconstructions, 25-27, 29, 117-118, 167, 492, 517-520, 523-532
Tritium, 275, 276-277, 282-283, 286, 287, 290
Tropical climates.
See also individual oceans and regions
coral records, 495-505
lake levels and surface areas and, 506-511
monitoring, 495-505
Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Program, 239, 303, 336, 421, 423
Tropical Pacific Ocean
climate shifts, 21
coral records of changes in, 496-505
interannual variability, 1, 502
models, 140
and North Pacific climate, 478-480
and sea level variations, 270-271
temperature, 145, 246, 247, 448
Tropical storms/disturbances
African rainfall and, 47
tracks, 115-116, 118, 119, 137, 473, 478
U.S. East Coast, 12
Troposphere
temperature, 27-28
Turkana, Lake, 508
U
Uganda, rainfall, 40
Ultraviolet radiation, 191, 193, 197
United Kingdom Meteorological Office, 90, 248, 250, 356, 314.
See also England
United States (contiguous).
See also North America;
individual states
aerosol forcing, 94
Clean Air Act, 94
climate fluctuations, 12
cloud cover, 92
drought, 19
greenhouse warming, 18
Historical Climatology Network, 69-70, 72, 77, 85, 88, 90
precipitation, 12, 13, 55, 67-69, 73-75, 76, 600
rainfall, 76
re-analysis modeling projects, 16
storm patterns, 12, 52, 311, 317, 367
sulfur emissions, 94
temperatures, 12, 13, 19-20, 22, 24, 29, 67, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88-89, 91, 123, 128, 191, 314
United States/People's Republic of China bilateral agreement, 81
University College London, 508, 511
University of
Colorado, 61
Wisconsin, 322
Urals, temperatures, 24, 518-519, 520, 522
Urban heat islands, 14, 61, 88-89
Urvina Bay, coral records, 503-504
U.S. Air Force, snow-depth product, 61
U.S. Department of Energy
data archeology, 14
temperature data, 201, 202, 204, 205
U.S. Geological Survey Satellite Image Atlas of the World, 16
U.S. Ice Patrol Standard Section, 306
US/USSR Bi-Lateral Environmental Data Exchange Agreement, 61, 81
V
Victoria, British Columbia, 366
Victoria, Lake, levels, 35, 493, 509
Volcanic eruptions
and aerosol forcing, 188, 193-194, 195, 196, 197, 198
atmospheric response to dust, 184-186
modeling, 184-185
and temperature, 59, 171, 183, 185-186, 188, 194, 195, 206-207, 208, 209, 524
Vostok ice cores, 167, 493, 575
W
Wajir, Kenya, 35
Walker, Gilbert, 459
Wallywash, Great Pond, Jamaica, 510
Water quality, 567
Wave trains
regional meridional, 113, 114-115, 118
Weddell Sea, 262, 283, 384, 521
Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin charts, 61, 71
West Greenland Banks, 306, 317
West Greenland Current, 295-296, 306, 309
West Greenland shelf, 300
West Wind Drift, 528
Western Boundary Undercurrent, 288, 291
Winnipeg, Manitoba, 366
Winds.
See also Atmospheric circulation
balanced frictional flow, 248
calculation, 119
curl, 475
easterlies, 127
equatorial zonal, 191
geostrophic, 248
and heat fluxes, 136, 190, 440
North Atlantic, 249-250
northerlies, 310, 313, 474, 476
pressure and, 119, 124, 125-126, 248
speeds, 249-250
sunspot cycles and, 191
and temperature, 90-92, 121, 124-125, 127, 128, 140-141, 142, 147-148, 307, 600
westerlies, 116-117, 124, 127, 508, 571
Winter
atmospheric circulation, 112, 113, 114, 118
cyclones, 311
Little Ice Age, 420
North Atlantic Ocean climate, 120-132, 291, 311
precipitation, 12
rainfall, 117
temperatures, 12, 28, 221, 312
World Climate Research Program (WCRP), 55, 319, 336
World Glacier Monitoring Service, 16, 55-56
World Meteorological Organization, 81, 277
World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE), 239, 296, 297, 336
World Water Balance studies, 68
World Weather Records, 81
Y
Younger Dryas cooling event, 190-191, 367, 538, 540, 552, 553, 575