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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the panel responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The program described in this report is supported by Cooperative Agreement No. DTMA91-94-G-00003 between the Maritime Administration of the U.S. Department of Transportation and the National Academy of Sciences. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Contaminated sediments in ports and waterways : clean-up strategies and technologies / Committee on Contaminated Marine Sediments, Marine Board, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-05493-1 (alk. paper)
1. Contaminated sediments—Management. 2. Marine sediments. 3. Harbors. 4. Waterways. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Contaminated Marine Sediments.
TD878.C665 1997
363.739’4—dc21 96-52050
CIP
Copyright © 1997 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
COMMITTEE ON CONTAMINATED MARINE SEDIMENTS
HENRY J. BOKUNIEWICZ, co-chair,
State University of New York at Stony Brook
KENNETH S. KAMLET, co-chair,
Linowes and Blocher, Silver Spring, Maryland
W. FRANK BOHLEN,
University of Connecticut, Groton
J. FREDERICK GRASSLE,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey
DONALD F. HAYES,
University of Utah, Salt Lake City
JAMES R. HUNT,
University of California, Berkeley
DWAYNE G. LEE,
Parsons Infrastructure and Technology Group, Pasadena, California
KENNETH E. MCCONNELL,
University of Maryland, College Park
SPYROS P. PAVLOU,
URS Greiner, Inc., Seattle. Washington
RICHARD K. PEDDICORD,
EA Engineering, Science, and Technology, Hunt Valley, Maryland
PETER SHELLEY,
Conservation Law Foundation, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts
RICHARD SOBEL,
Clean Sites, Inc., Alexandria. Virginia
LOUIS J. THIBODEAUX,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
JAMES G. WENZEL,
NAE, Marine Development Associates, Inc., Saratoga, California
LILY Y. YOUNG,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey
Liaison Representatives
SABINE APITZ,
Naval Command, Control, and Ocean Surveillance Center, San Diego, California
CHARLES C. CALHOUN,
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi
MILES CROOM,
National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland
ROBERT ENGLER,
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi
KENNETH HOOD,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
EVIE KALKETENIDOU,
Maritime Administration. Washington, D.C.
DANIEL LEUBECKER,
Maritime Administration, Washington, D.C.
FRANK MANHEIM,
U.S. Geological Survey, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
JANET MORTON,
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia
ANNA PALMISANO,
Office of Naval Research, Arlington, Virginia
CARL SOBREMISANA,
Maritime Administration, Washington, D.C.
MARK SPRENGER,
Environmental Protection Agency, Edison, New Jersey
CRAIG VOGT,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
LARRY ZARAGOZA,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
MARINE BOARD
JAMES M. COLEMAN, NAE, chair,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
JERRY A. ASPLAND, vice-chair,
California Maritime Academy, Vallejo
BERNHARD J. ABRAHAMSSON,
University of Wisconsin, Superior
BROCK B. BERNSTEIN,
EcoAnalysis, Ojai, California
LILLIAN C. BORRONE,
NAE, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
SARAH CHASIS,
Natural Resources Defense Council, New York
CHRYSSOSTOMOS CHRYSSOSTOMIDIS,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
BILIANA CICIN-SAIN,
University of Delaware, Newark
BILLY L. EDGE,
Texas A&M University, College Station
JOHN W. FARRINGTON,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
MARTHA GRABOWSKI,
LeMoyne College and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Cazenovia, New York
JAMES D. MURFF,
Exxon Production Research Company, Houston, Texas
M. ELISABETH PATÉ-CORNELL,
NAE, Stanford University, Stanford, California
DONALD W. PRITCHARD,
NAE, State University of New York at Stony Brook and Severna Park, Maryland
STEVEN T. SCALZO,
Foss Maritime Company, Seattle, Washington
MALCOLM L. SPAULDING,
University of Rhode Island, Narragansett
KARL K. TUREKIAN,
NAS, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
ROD VULOVIC,
Sea-Land Service, Charlotte, North Carolina
E G. "SKIP" WARD,
Shell Offshore, Houston, Texas
Staff
CHARLES A BOOKMAN, Director
DONALD W. PERKINS, Associate Director
DORIS C. HOLMES, Staff Associate
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Preface
BACKGROUND
Contaminated marine sediments threaten ecosystems, marine resources, and human health. Sediment contamination also can have major economic impacts when controversies over risks and costs of sediment management interfere with the regular and periodic need to dredge major ports Approximately 95 percent (by weight), or 1.4 billion tons, of total U.S. trade passes through dredged ports (Maritime Administration, 1994).
In a previous report, the National Research Council (NRC) (1989) examined the extent and significance of contaminated marine sediments, the state of practice of cleanup and remediation, and management strategies. Although contamination was a serious concern at many sites, the report found that remedial action was rare. Several barriers to remediation were identified, including insufficient data for the comprehensive listing and prioritization of contaminated sites, the lack of widely accepted techniques for identifying and assessing contamination in marine sediments, poor documentation of direct risks to human health and the ecosystem, a dearth of new U.S.-developed dredging technology, and legal limitations on the direct use of foreign technology. The report concluded that periodic reviews of site assessment procedures and cleanup technologies were needed and that management decisions should be based on a comparison of risks, costs, and benefits to both the environment and public health.
The 1989 NRC report enhanced public understanding of the widespread and important, but poorly quantified, problem of contaminated sediments and suggested how it might be addressed. The report assisted several states, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) to address the issue of contaminated sediments in the context of other responsibilities. The U.S. Congress responded by mandating, in the Water Resources Development Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-580), an inventory of contaminated sediment sites.
There are four principal reasons to manage contaminated marine sediments: (1) to identify and clean up threats to public health and wildlife; (2) to meet water and environmental quality standards; (3) to identify and clean up sites that have the potential to cause wider environmental harm; and (4) to ameliorate dredging controversies, particularly concerning the designation of disposal sites for contaminated dredged material. A strategy for achieving these objectives must strike a balance among various risks and among risks, costs, and benefits. Choices that must be made from a wide range of tactics are hampered by substantial uncertainties. The present study is an attempt to assist in the decision making and to address the key management and technology issues associated with the remediation of contaminated marine sediments.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
After discussions with the EPA, NOAA, USACE, and the U.S. Navy, the NRC convened a committee under the auspices of the Marine Board to assess the nation's capability for remediating contaminated marine sediments and to chart a course for the development of management strategies. The objectives of the study were:
- to assess the best management practices and current and emerging remediation technologies that have been tried for reducing adverse environmental impacts of contaminated sediments. These approaches include biological, chemical, and physical methods, such as removal technologies, in situ and ex situ treatment, containment (including capping), and natural recovery. Methods were to be reviewed with regard to scientific and engineering feasibility, practicality, cost, efficiency, and effectiveness.
- to appraise interim control measures for contaminated sediment sites. Interim control methods can be technology-based (e.g., systems that halt the deposition or spread of contaminants) or management-oriented (e.g., controlling other uses of contaminated areas). Interim control measures were to be identified and appraised to determine their applicability to classes of problems, their affordability, and their practicality.
- to examine how information about risks, costs, and benefits can be used to guide decision making concerning the management of contaminated sediments
- to assess existing knowledge and to identify research that is critical for enhancing the use of existing technologies in contaminated sediment management and in developing new technologies
The committee determined that the effectiveness of contaminated sediment management practices and remediation technologies is influenced by a number of external factors, including laws and regulations, site assessment methods, and efforts to control the source(s) of contamination. Therefore, the committee judged it necessary to include these topics in its assessment, but only to the extent that they support best management practices. Evaluating the significance of natural spatial and temporal variations and identifying "clean" versus "contaminated" sediments are outside the purview of this study. Also, a detailed comparison of the biogeochemical and biological ''availability" of contaminants with a concentration-driven process is beyond the scope of this report. These are, however, important topics that might be addressed elsewhere.
The study was carried out by a carefully constituted committee and staff. Committee members were selected to ensure a wide range of expertise and to include a broad spectrum of viewpoints. Members represented the fields of coastal, geotechnical, and systems engineering; site remediation and bioremediation; port engineering and operations; aquatic toxicology; physical, chemical, geological, and biological oceanography; geology; environmental law and policy; and economics. (Biographies of the committee members are provided in Appendix A.) In keeping with NRC policy, potential biases that might accompany expertise vital to the study were not excluded.
There is no universally accepted definition of a "contaminated" sediment. The 1989 NRC report defined the term to mean a sediment that contains chemical concentrations that pose a known or suspected threat to the environment or human health. The methods for determining if a risk exists are imperfect, so the "acceptable" level of contamination is subject to debate. Regulatory agencies, from the local to the international level, have adopted or are producing both qualitative and quantitative definitions of contaminated sediments. For purposes of this report, the committee assumed that methodological thresholds for determining when contamination exists are available and are used. The committee did not assess the adequacy of standard practices beyond pointing out how they may influence risk management.
STUDY METHOD
The full committee met seven times over a three-year period. The committee reviewed relevant reports and was briefed on federal activities related to contaminated sediments. Information was solicited from expert researchers and practitioners from federal, regional, state, and local government agencies; port authorities; industry; and public interest groups. The committee also visited the U.S. Army Engineer, Waterways Experiment Station (WES) in Vicksburg, Mississippi, where the committee was briefed on research activities, and to the Port of Tacoma in Washington, where the committee solicited expert testimony
regarding an ongoing dredging and remediation project. The committee also held workshops on sediment removal and remediation technologies (Thoma, 1994) and on interim control measures.
In addition to the full committee meetings, various committee members developed particular aspects of the report either on their own or by working in small groups. Two committee members prepared a review of the regulatory framework for contaminated sediments (Appendix B), while others developed the case histories of six ongoing or recently completed remediation projects (summarized in Appendix C). Committee members with special expertise prepared primers on the application of two decision-making tools to improve contaminated sediments management (Appendix D and Appendix E).
REPORT ORGANIZATION
The audience for this report includes federal, state, and local government agencies; U.S. Congress and congressional staff; policymakers and project managers; members of the technical community associated with the various aspects of the remediation of contaminated sediments; and other members of the marine or coastal community, including the general public, who have a stake in the decision-making process.
Chapter 1 outlines the forces driving the remediation of contaminated sediments, the risk management process, and the unique challenges to be overcome—all factors that affect the choice of management techniques and technologies. Chapter 2 describes a conceptual management approach to the problem, from the identification of a contaminated site through the long-term monitoring of project results, as well as tools for assessing trade-offs among risks, costs, and benefits that can improve decision making.
In chapters 3, 4, and 5, specific topics are examined with the aim of enhancing the prospects for success. Chapter 3 discusses two important influences on decision making-regulatory realities and stakeholder interests—that must be mastered by project proponents. Chapter 4 describes how proper attention to site-specific considerations, including source control and site assessment, can support cost-effective management The heart of the report is Chapter 5, which contains an assessment of interim and long-term controls and technologies on the basis of maturity, applicability, effectiveness, limitations, cost, and research needs.
Chapter 6 synthesizes the information and analyses in the previous chapters and presents conclusions and recommendations. The appendices include a review of the regulatory framework for contaminated sediments (Appendix B), a summary of the case studies (Appendix C), a primer on the use of cost-benefit analysis to improve management (Appendix D), and a description of decision analysis and its application in a test case (Appendix E).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The committee wishes to thank the many individuals who contributed their time and effort to this project, whether in the form of presentations at meetings, correspondence, or telephone calls. Invaluable assistance was provided to both the committee and the Marine Board staff by representatives of federal and state agencies as well as private companies in various sectors.
In particular, the committee acknowledges the support of the following individuals: Sabine Apitz, U.S. Navy, Naval Command, Control and Ocean Surveillance Center; Charles C. Calhoun, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (WES); Miles Croom, NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service; Robert Engler, U.S. Army Engineer WES; Kenneth Hood, EPA, Office of Research and Development; Evie Kalketenidou, Maritime Administration (MARAD), Office of Port and Intermodal Development; Daniel Leubecker, MARAD, Office of Technology Assessment; Frank Manheim, U.S Geological Survey (USGS), Branch of Atlantic Marine Geology; Janet Morton, USGS, Office of Energy and Marine Geology; Anna Palmisano, U.S. Navy, Office of Naval Research, Biological Science and Technology Program; Carl Sobremisana, MARAD, Office of Port and Intermodal Development; Betsy Southerland, EPA, Office of Science and Technology (OST); Mark Sprenger, EPA, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Craig Vogt, EPA, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds; Larry Zaragoza, EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Remedial Response; and Christopher Zarba, EPA, OST.
For assistance with technical aspects of the report, special thanks also go to Steve Garbaciak and James Hahnenberg of the EPA; Dan Averett, James Clausner, Norm Francingues, C. R. Lee, Jan Miller, Michael Palermo, and Joe Wilson of the USACE; Greg Hartman, Greg Hartman Associates; Ancil Taylor, Bean Dredging Corporation; and Ian Orchard and Carol Ancheta, Environment Canada.
Finally, the chairmen recognize members of the committee, not only for their hard work during meetings and in reviewing drafts of this report but also for gathering information and writing sections of the report.
REFERENCES
Maritime Administration (MARAD). 1994. A Report to Congress on the Status of the Public Ports of the United States, 1992-1993. MARAD Office of Ports and Domestic Shipping. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Transportation
National Research Council (NRC). 1989. Contaminated Marine Sediments Assessment and Remediation. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press
Thoma, G. 1994. Summary of the Workshop on Contaminated Sediment Handling, Treatment Technologies, and Associated Costs held April 21-22, 1994. Background paper prepared for the Committee on Contaminated Marine Sediments, Marine Board. National Research Council. Washington, D. C.
This page in the original is blank. |
Boxes, Figures, and Tables
BOXES
2-1 |
Evaluating Sediment Contamination: Effects-Based Testing and Sediment Quality Criteria, |
|||
4-1 |
Basic Tenets of Site Assessment, |
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5-1 |
Importance of Cost in Technology Assessment, |
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5-2 |
Process of Defining a Remediation System, |
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5-3 |
Selecting Ex Situ Controls, |
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D-1 |
Simplified Examples of Cost-Benefit Calculations, |
FIGURES
1-1 |
Regulation of contaminated sediments, |
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1-2 |
Volume and costs of dredging by the USACE and industry, 1963 to 1994, |
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2-1 |
Conceptual overview of the management of contaminated sediments, |
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2-2 |
Conceptual illustration of the trade-offs involved in cost-benefit analysis, |
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4-1 |
Conceptual site assessment protocol, |
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5-1 |
Process of defining a remediation system, |
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5-2 |
Remediation technologies subsystem structure, |
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5-3 |
Conceptual illustration of containment, disposal, and natural recovery technologies, |
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D-1 |
Conceptual illustration of the trade-offs involved in cost-benefit analysis, |
D-2 |
Example of cost-benefit analysis with discrete projects, |
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D-3 |
Costs and benefits of reducing body burden, |
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E-1 |
Predicted average PCB concentration as a function of area dredged (to a depth of I meter), assuming sediments are dredged in order of decreasing PCB concentration, |
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E-2 |
Influence diagram of a test case, |
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E-3 |
Expected values of alternative dredged-volume decisions, |
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E-4 |
Dredged-volume decision analysis, |
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E-5 |
Expected values of alternative dredged-value decisions with modified model parameters, |
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E-6 |
Effect of modified model parameters on maximum dredged volume decision, |
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E-7 |
Switchover analysis for the annual resource damage cost, |
TABLES
S-1 |
Comparative Analysis of Technology Categories, |
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1-1 |
Time Lapse between Identification of a Problem and Implementation of a Solution: Examples from Six Case Histories, |
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5-1 |
Natural Recovery, |
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5-2 |
In-Place Capping, |
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5-3 |
Immobilization (solidification/stabilization), |
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5-4 |
In Situ Chemical Treatment, |
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5-5 |
In Situ Bioremediation, |
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5-6 |
Soil Washing and Physical Separation, |
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5-7 |
Chemical Separation and Thermal Desorption, |
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5-8 |
Immobilization, |
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5-9 |
Thermal and Chemical Destruction, |
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5-10 |
Ex Situ Bioremediation, |
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5-11 |
Confined Disposal Facility, |
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5-12 |
Contained Aquatic Disposal, |
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5-13 |
Landfills, |
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5-14 |
Qualitative Comparison of the State of the Art in Remediation Technologies, |
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5-15 |
Comparative Analysis of Technology Categories, |
|||
B-1 |
Interrelationships of Sediment Regulatory Authorities in Selected Scenarios, |
|||
C-1 |
Selection and Evaluation Criteria for Six Case Histories, |
Acronyms
ARAR
applicable or relevant and appropriate regulatory requirement
ARCS
Assessment and Remediation of Contaminated Sediments
CAD
contained aquatic disposal
CDF
confined disposal facility
CERCLA
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Cleanup. and Liability Act
CFR
Code of Federal Regulations
CRADA
cooperative research and development agreement
CWA
Clean Water Act
CZMA
Coastal Zone Management Act
D&D
dredging and disposal (or placement)
DMMP
dredged material management plan
DOE
Department of Energy
DOI
Department of the Interior
EA
environmental assessment
EIS
environmental impact statement
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
ESA
Endangered Species Act
FDA
Food and Drug Administration
FONSI
finding of no significant impact
GDP
gross domestic product
GPS
global positioning system
LA
load allocation
MBDS
Massachusetts Bay Disposal Site
MCY
millions of cubic yards
MPRSA
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act
MT
metric tons
NAAQS
national ambient air quality standards
NEPA
National Environmental Policy Act
NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPL
National Priorities List
NRC
National Research Council
NSI
National Sediment Inventory
OMC
Outboard Motor Corporation
OST
Office of Science and Technology (EPA)
PCB
polychlorinated biphenyl
RCRA
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RHA
Rivers and Harbors Act
ROD
record of decision
R&D
research and development
SARA
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SITE
Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluations
SQC
sediment quality criteria
TCLP
toxic characteristics leaching procedure
TMDL
total maximum daily load
USACE
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USGS
U.S. Geological Survey
WES
U.S. Army Engineer, Waterways Experiment Station
WLA
waste load allocation
WRDA
Water Resources Development Act
Port of Mobile
Dredging enables ports to maintain adequate depths in harbors and channels and thereby attract commercial shipping, which provides goods, jobs, and other benefits for area residents. The photograph shows a hydraulic dredge drawing up sediment from a shipping channel in Mobile, Alabama.
Photograph courtesy of U S Army Corps of Engineers