Index
A
Access to scientific data. See International access to scientific data;
Data, unrestricted access
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), 58, 123
African Data Dissemination Service (ADDS), 107
Agencies. See Federal government science agencies
Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 150, 154-156, 161, 170, 178, 183-184
Alloy Phase Diagram International Commission, 209
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 92, 94, 109
American Astronomical Society, 66
American Geophysical Union, 64
American Institute of Physics, 64
American Meteorological Society, 64
American Society for Mechanical Engineers, 96
Animation, 4, 57, 65, 67-68, 196
Anticompetitive exclusive property rights. See Exclusive property rights
Applied research, 1, 18, 20, 133
Archives, 5, 59-60, 72, 82-83, 196.
See also Long-term data sets;
Retention, long-term;
Retrospective data sets
Argentina, 54
Association for Progressive Communications, 42, 46
Association of American Geographers, 64
Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), 117, 213
Astronomical Data Center, 66
Astronomical sciences, 1, 19, 34, 53-54, 66
Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 66
Astronomy and Astrophysics,66
Astrophysical Journal, 66
Astrophysics Data System (ADS), 66, 71
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), 25, 32, 35, 196
Atmospheric sciences, 55, 57, 78, 216-218
Australia, 66
Australian Oceanographic Data Centre, 118
Automatic license, 164
B
Barriers to access, 3, 4, 8, 76, 89.
See also Economic factors and trends;
International access to scientific data;
Legal infrastructure
Basic research, 1-2, 7, 9, 17-18, 97, 133, 163-164
Belgium, 205
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works , 9, 135, 145, 155, 160-161, 170, 183
"Big science." See "Megascience" programs
Bilateral agreements, 81
Biological data, 56, 72-74, 84
Biological sciences, 1, 5, 11, 19, 56-57, 73, 83-88
Books. See Publishers, commercial
Brazil, 54
Broadband transmission, 28, 30, 197
Brookhaven National Laboratory, 63, 205
C
Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre, 211, 219
Canada, 206
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), 71, 105, 215, 219
Center for Information and Numerical Data Analysis and Synthesis (CINDAS), 119
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 120
Chemical Abstracts Service, 211, 219
Chile, 41
China. See People's Republic of China
Circular A-130, 126, 131, 163, 187
Climate. See Global climate change
CODATA. See Committee on Data for Science and Technology
CODATA Commission on Standardized Terminology for Access to Biological Data Banks, 11, 85, 88, 101
CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants, 88
CODATA Task Group on Outreach, Education, and Communication, 108
Cold War, end of, 4, 21, 77, 111, 214
Collaborative research, 6, 14, 21, 29, 31-32, 45, 63, 97-100, 207 -208
Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF), 207, 218
Commercialization of data, 29, 31, 99, 111, 168-169.
See also Markets
Commission of the European Communities (CEC), 8, 145-148, 154-155 , 164
Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), viii, 1-2, 19, 88, 219
Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS), 94-95
Committee on Geophysical and Environmental Data, 79
Committee on Science and Technology in Developing Countries (COSTED) , 108
Communications.
See also Wireless communication
Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM), 34, 45, 64, 98, 126, 141
Competitiveness, 7, 9, 116, 148, 162.
See also Exclusive property rights;
Unfair competition laws
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 60, 81
Compulsory license, 147, 159, 169
Computational Materials Science,67
Computer science research, 13, 43
Computers, 13, 40-42, 44, 102, 110.
See also Personal computers
hybrid analog/digital, 26
scientific requirements for, 36, 39
Computing, costs of, 27-28
Conflicts of law.
See Legislation
Congressional Budget Office, 58-61, 104
Consortium for International Earth Sciences Information Network (CIESIN) , 94, 99, 108
Constants. See Fundamental constants;
Natural constants
Constitution. See U.S. Constitution
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 107-108
Contracts, 135
harsh terms of, 159
Copying. See Photocopying
Copyright Act of 1976, 140, 143-144
Copyright law, 16, 48, 136-140, 143-144, 156.
See also Fair use;
Noncopyrightable databases;
Royalties
Costs. See Computing;
Data;
Reproduction and distribution
Council of Ministers, 148, 152, 154-156
Cyberspace, 9, 143, 145, 161, 197
D
See also Networks
accessing (See International access to scientific data;
Full and open exchange of data)
acquiring, 82
analog, 196
collecting, 27-28, 30, 62, 198
cost of, 6
(See also Data, pricing)
declassification of, 77-78
digitizing, 2, 11, 73, 101, 111
distributing, 4, 6-7, 62-64, 114-116, 129
evaluating, 199
interfacing, 75
managing, 10, 11, 13, 61-64, 198
nondiscriminatory availability, 79
nonproprietary, 79
privatizing, 6-7, 14, 111, 116, 120-124, 202
(See also Intranets)
providing (See Sole-source data providers)
purging, 82
raw, 202
remote access, 203
retaining (See Data, storing)
sources of, 11
spectral, 203
transferring, 198
transnational exchange of, 19, 21, 83, 97-100
unique, 163
universality of, 48
unrestricted access, 83
using (See Documentation of data sets)
Database industry, 153
Database publishers. See Publishers
Databases, 199.
See also Genome databases;
Noncopyrightable databases
commercial value of, 168
converting, 89
electronic, 8
"insubstantial parts of," 152, 157-158
managing, 198
relational, 203
vulnerability of, 140-142
Data integrity, 198
Data Management Center (DMC), 216
Decryption, 198.
See also Encryption
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 48, 56, 73, 212
Derivative work rights, 139, 151
DETHERM, 211
Developing countries, 6, 12, 40-42, 90-100
accessing data from, 97-100
Digital versus analog data, 20
Digital versatile disk (DVD), 34, 45
Digitizing. See Data
Directive on the Legal Protection of Databases, European, 9, 142, 148-160
Distributed networks of data centers, 83
Documentation of data sets, 5, 11, 76-77, 106
E
eApJ. See Astrophysical Journal
Earth Interactions, 64
Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT), 121
Earth Observing System (EOS), 30, 45, 80
Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS), 57, 58, 62, 106, 118, 215, 219
Earth sciences, 5, 54-56, 69, 75
Earth system processes, 6, 54, 97
Earthquakes, 55.
See also Seismic arrays and stations
Ecological Society of America, 64
Economic factors and trends, 1, 6-8, 110-131, 132-133
decreasing computing costs, 3, 27
restrictions and barriers, 3, 91-92
Education. See Science education
Electronic storage media, 4, 21
rapid obsolescence of, 36, 38, 72, 74
Encryption, 43, 156, 159-160, 199
Engineering applications, 51
England. See United Kingdom
Environmental sciences, 5.
See also Observational environmental sciences
European Bioinformatics Institute, 212
European Community, 93, 134, 145-148, 154
European Dictionaire Automatique, 33
European Directive on Databases. See Directive on the Legal Protection of Databases
European Molecular Biology Organization, 212
European Southern Observatory, 54
European Space Agency (ESA), 54, 118, 213
European Space Information System, 117
Evaluated Nuclear Data File/B (ENDF/B), 119, 206
Evaluated Nuclear Structure Data File (ENSDF), 52, 205-206
Exclusive property rights, 136-137, 146
Extraction, 157-158
unauthorized, 158
unfair, 147
''Extraction right," 154
F
Fair use, 8-9, 12, 15-16, 143-144, 167-168, 171
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) system, 120
Federal government science agencies, 2-3, 13, 20, 44.
See also individual agencies
Federation of Digital Seismographic Networks (FDSN), 59, 216
Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co.,8, 16, 139 , 154
Fiber-optic communication, 24, 26
Fidonet, 42
File transfer protocol (FTP), 131
First Amendment. See U.S. Constitution
Flexible image transport system (FITS), 34
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 86, 93
France, 206
Freedom of scientific inquiry, 2, 17
Full and open exchange of data, 3, 7, 9-10, 15, 17, 22, 81-82, 101, 199
Fundamental constants, 56
Fundamental research. See Basic research
G
Gemini project, 54
Genbank, 117
Genome databases, 56, 117, 212-213
Geographic Information System (GIS), 75-76
See also Earth sciences;
Environmental sciences;
Observational environmental sciences
Global Atmospheric Research Program, 218
Global Atmospheric Watch, 69
Global Change Research Information Office, 55, 69, 79, 82
Global Climate Observing System, 69, 105
Global data sharing. See International access to scientific data
Global observational data sets, 97
Global Ocean Observing System, 69, 105
Global Terrestrial Observing System, 69-70, 105
Government science agencies. See Federal government science agencies
Great Britain. See United Kingdom
"Group of Seven" nations, 10, 101
H
High density-read only memory (HD-ROM), 45
High Energy Astrophysical Observatory2, 60
High-energy physics (HEP), 206-208
High-performance parallel interface (HIPPI), 30
Historical data. See Data
House. See U.S. House of Representatives
H.R. 3531. See U.S. Database Investment and Intellectual Property Antipiracy Act
Hubble Space Telescope (HST), 4, 60, 110, 113, 117, 120, 213-214, 219
Human Genome Project, 4, 23, 27, 120, 213, 219
HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML), 33-34
I
Icarus, 66
Iceland, 183
Image Reduction and Analysis Facility (IRAF), 214
Incompatibilities. See Standardization
Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS), 57-59, 119, 215-216, 219
Incremental cost pricing, 14, 125-126
Indonesia, 42
Information Infrastructure Task Force (IITF) White Paper, 143, 155-156, 159-161
Information Market Policy Action (IMPACT) program, 145
Information technology, 3-4, 24, 110
trends in, 24-46
Infrared Astronomical Satellite, 60
subpatentable, 137
Institute of Physics (U.K.), 64
"Insubstantial parts." See Databases
Intangible property, 161
Integrated services digital network (ISDN) services, 32
Intellectual property rights (IPR), 5, 8-10, 48, 132-188
Interdisciplinary research, 74-76
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, 70
Intergovernmental organizations, 63, 93.
See also individual organizations
International access to scientific data, 2, 40-42, 90-100
developments affecting, 2-10, 17
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 52, 205
International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses, 85
International cooperation, 19, 83
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), 10-13, 44, 55, 88, 99, 101-103, 108, 214, 219
International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction, 75
International Foundation for Science (IFS), 108
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP), 4, 22, 27, 55, 69, 77, 106
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 46
International organizations, 6, 12, 93.
See also individual organizations
International Research and Exchange Board (IREX), 94, 109
International Science Foundation, 109
International Telecommunications Union, 13, 44
International Ultraviolet Explorer, 60
International Union of Biological Sciences, 85
International Union of Microbiological Sciences, 88
International Union of Pharmacology, 85
Internet, 3, 29, 31, 42, 65, 68, 200.
See also World Wide Web
congestion on, 8, 26, 35-37, 126-128
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), 12, 32, 34, 43
Internet Protocol Next Generation (IPng), 35, 45
See also Profit;
Return on investment;
"Substantial investment" incentives for, 141
Italy, 207
J
Japan, 205
Journals. See Scientific journals
K
Kenya, 42
Kuwait, 205
L
Laboratory physical sciences, 5, 51-52, 205
data compatibility in, 88-90
data exchanges in, 205-212
Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992, 121
Landsat, 77, 111, 121-123, 163
Language translation, 33
Large research programs. See "Megascience" programs
Laws. See Legislation
Legal infrastructure, 1, 8-10, 139
restrictions and barriers, 3, 9, 136
Legislation, 132.
See also Antitrust law;
Copyright law;
Trade secret law;
Trademark laws;
Unfair competition laws;
individual laws
conflicts in, 161
Liability principles, 137, 148, 164
Liability regime, 136
See also Automatic license;
Compulsory license
Licensing fees, 165
Liechtenstein, 183
Long-term data sets, 82.
See also Archives;
Retention, long-term;
Retrospective data sets
Los Alamos National Laboratory, 30-31, 45, 208
M
Machine translation, 29
Manufacturing applications, 18, 51
Marginal cost pricing, 7, 14, 126
Market forces, 3, 162-164, 168
abuses of, 154
Market price system, 113
Markets, 9, 111-114, 139, 140, 162-164.
See also Competitiveness
Materials sciences, 67, 106-107, 211
Media. See Electronic storage media;
Print media
"Megascience" programs, 19, 23, 58-61
See also Documentation of data sets
Metals Information Analysis Center (MIAC), 119
Microbiology, 96
Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), 25
Mission to Planet Earth (MTPE), 193
Modeling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering,67
Monopolies
profit-making, 7, 151-152, 158, 162
public, 116
regulated, 124
unrestricted, 7
Multicast broadcast backbone network (MBone), 31-32, 45
Multinational authorship, 21
N
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 34, 45, 54, 64, 80-81, 93, 117, 213-214
data availability policy, 80-81
National Cancer Institute, 41
National Center for Atmospheric Research, 117
National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), 212, 219
National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), 72, 119, 217
National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC), 72, 214
National Human Genome Research Institute, 22
National information infrastructure, 193
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 89
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 41, 117
National Land Remote Sensing Satellite Data Archive, 62
National Library of Medicine (NLM), 41
National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC), 52, 63-64, 206
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 62, 98, 116 , 119, 121, 214, 217-218
National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), 98, 217-218
National Optical Astronomy Observatories, 214
National Research Council (NRC), 20, 38, 45-46, 54, 68-69, 7475, 103-109
National Science Foundation (NSF), 31, 54, 85
National security issues, 77
National Space Policy 1996, 62, 79
National Space Sciences Data Center, 117
Natural constants, 50
Natural language processing, 4, 29, 32-33
Natural sciences, 1, 4, 16, 19, 111, 201
Netherlands, 205
See also Fidonet;
InternetII;
Real-time monitoring and controlling, 4, 29, 34-35
vulnerability of, 36, 39, 140-142
NGOs. See Nongovernmental organizations
Niche markets, 139
See also Taxonomic definitions;
Terminology
Noncopyrightable databases, 146-147
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 81, 94-96.
See also individual organizations
Nonvoluntary licensing. See Compulsory license
Nordic catalogue rule, 146, 179
Nuclear Database (NUDAT), 206
Nuclear Information Service, 118
O
Observational environmental sciences, 69-83
Observational sciences, 5-6, 50, 53, 201
Observations, simultaneous, 53
Obsolescence. See Electronic storage media
Oceanographic Society of America, 64, 216
Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 126, 131, 159
Office of Science and Technology Policy, 11, 15, 90, 102, 171
Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), 176
On-line transmissions, 156
Open publication. See Publication, open
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 10, 20, 27, 101
Organization of American States (OAS), 93, 108
P
Paleoclimatology World Data Center, 119
Pan American Health Organization, 93
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 135, 145, 170, 178
Patent and copyright systems, 8.
See also Copyright law;
Subpatentable innovations
Patent and Trademark Office (PTO), 156, 160
People's Republic of China, 72-73, 205
Personal computers (PCs), 35, 110
Physical sciences, 1, 4, 19, 51-52
"Plain old" telephone service (POTS), 32
Policy. See Public policy;
Science policy
Population issues, 74
Portable Operating System Interface for Computer Environments (POSIX) , 33
Post, telephone, and telegraph ministries (PTTs), 40
Predigital status quo, 135-139.
See also Digital versus analog data
Price differentiation, 6-7, 124-126, 129, 167-168
Price discrimination, 14, 116, 124-125, 129
Price of data. See Data
Print media, 140.
See also Publishers;
Scientific journals
Private investment, 9
incentives for, 141
Private sector, 93, 96, 116, 120
Privatizing data. See Data
Processing data. See Data
Product differentiation, 14, 116
Professional societies, 5, 11, 49
Property rights.
See also Intangible property;
Intellectual property exclusive (See Exclusive property rights)
protectionist, 14
Proprietary rights, 48, 151, 162.
See also Data, nonproprietary
Protectionist strategy, 155-156
possible consequences of, 165
Publication, open, 17.
See also Electronic publication;
Professional societies;
Publishers;
Scientific journals
Public good, 7, 15, 164-170, 202
defined, 112-113
Public health and safety, 6, 56
Public interest, 5-6, 9, 17-18, 161
Public investment, 14, 115, 128-129, 133
Public monopolies, 116
See also Science policy
debate over, 22
Public rights versus private rights, 8, 139-145
Publicly funded research and data, 3, 7, 17, 110-131, 133
Publishers, 135, 142, 154, 166, 168
Q
R
Ramsey pricing, 124
Reciprocity clause, 155
Recommendations, 10-15, 22, 43-44, 81, 83, 100-103, 128-129, 171
Regulatory approaches, differing, 145
Remote sensing, 204
Reproduction and distribution.
See also Photocopying
Research. See Applied research;
Basic research;
Collaborative research;
International cooperation;
International research;
Publicly funded research and data;
Users of research data
Retention, long-term, 5.
See also Archives;
Long-term data sets;
Retrospective data sets
Retrospective data sets, 78.
See also Archives;
Long-term data sets;
Retention, long-term
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 73, 212
Rights. See Derivative work rights;
Intellectual property rights;
Property rights;
Proprietary rights;
Public rights versus private rights
Royalties, 144
S
Satellites, 25, 41, 58, 95, 110
Science agencies. See Federal government science agencies
Science and Technology Network International (STN), 211
Science education, 9, 13, 15, 92-93
Science Group Thermodata Europe, 209
Scientific data.
See also Data accessing (See International access to scientific data)
defined, 16
Scientific issues, 47-109
defined, 47-49
progress in, 3
Scientific journals, 5, 12, 48-49, 52
Scientific research. See Applied research;
Basic research;
Collaborative research;
International research;
Publicly funded research;
Users of research data
Scientific understanding, 82
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 118
Search capabilities, 89
Secondary users of data, 106, 203
supporting (See Documentation of data sets)
Seismic arrays and stations, 215
Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984, 155
SIMBAD (set of identifications, measurements, and bibliography for astronomical data), 71
Simple Message Transfer Protocol (SMTP), 33
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), 33-34
Soil science, 85
Soil Taxonomy system, 86
Soils and Terrain Digital Database (SOTER), 85-87
Sole-source data providers, 147
Space sciences, 53-54, 66, 71-72
Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF), 196, 213-214
Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), 213-214
Specialized Agencies of the United Nations, 10, 13, 44, 101
SPECINFO, 211
Standard Generalized Mark-up Language (SGML), 33
Standardization, 4, 11, 29, 33-34
Storage of data. See Data
Stratospheric ozone depletion, 55
Subpatentable innovations, 137
"Substantial investment," 151, 157
Sui generis regime, 137, 145-147, 149-160, 162, 164, 166-169, 203
Sweden, 205
Switzerland, 209
T
T-2. See Nuclear Information Service
Taiwan, 205
Taxonomic definitions, 11, 84.
See also Nomenclature;
Terminology
Technical factors and trends, 1, 3, 24-40
concerns over, 35-40
Telecommunications. See Communications
Terminology, 83-88
Thematic Mapper (TM), 122-123
Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), 96, 108
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. See Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Trade secret law, 136
Trademark laws, 150
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), 33, 42
Transnational data flow. See Data, transnational exchange of
Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Program, 70
Turkey, 183
U
Unauthorized use, 158
Unfair competition laws, 139
Uniform resource locators (URLs), 66
problems with, 23
Uniform resource name (URN), 23, 66
United Nations Commission on Economic Development (UNCED), 44
United Nations Development Programme, 93
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 86, 92-93, 108
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 44, 85, 93, 99
United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 44, 96
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), 46, 93, 96, 107
enabling clause, 157
First Amendment concerns, 139
U.S. Database Investment and Intellectual Property Antipiracy Act (H.R. 3531), 157-160, 185
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 93, 107
U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC), 119
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), 31
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), 73, 215
U.S. Department of State, 93
U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI), 118
U.S. federal government science agencies. See Federal government science agencies
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 57-58
U.S. government, 93.
See also individual government agencies
U.S. House of Representatives, 8, 155-157
U.S. National Committee for CODATA (USNC-CODATA), x, 23
Users of research data, 115-116, 125, 163, 169.
See also Commercial users;
Secondary users of data
V
Value-added products, 7, 133, 140, 152, 164
Vietnam, 96
Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA), 94
W
Wireless communication, 4, 24, 28, 30
World Data Centers (WDCs), 10, 79, 94, 98, 101, 214-215, 219
World Health Organization (WHO), 93
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 9, 15, 134, 142143, 146, 155-156, 158, 170-171, 184
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 55, 70, 93, 116, 216-219
World Trade Organization (WTO), 15, 155-156, 161, 170-171
World Weather Watch, 69-70, 216-218
World Wide Web (WWW), 26, 30, 42, 65, 68, 127, 204, 206
X
X. 400, 33
