NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
Support for this study was provided by the Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency both under subcontract no. C93-160544 and the National Center for Manufacturing Sciences under grant no. 02-170-000-92093.
Copyright 1997 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
A limited number of copies of this report are available from the National Academy of Sciences, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20418.
Printed in the United States of America.
COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRIAL COMPETITIVENESS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
HENRY J. HATCH (Chair),
Fluor Daniel Hanford, Inc., Richland, Washington
FREDERICK R. ANDERSON,
Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft, Washington, D.C.
PATRICK R. ATKINS,
Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
HOPE M. BABCOCK,
Georgetown University Law Center, Washington, D.C.
SCOTT BERNSTEIN,
Center for Neighborhood Technology, Chicago, Illinois
RICHARD O. HOMMEL,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
FRANCES H. IRWIN,
World Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C.
STEVEN D. JELLINEK,
Jellinek, Schwartz & Connolly, Inc., Arlington, Virginia
ROBERT A. LAUDISE,
Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, New Jersey
LESTER B. LAVE,
Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
MICHAEL J. LEAKE,
Texas Instruments, Inc., Dallas, Texas
EVE L. MENGER,
Coming, Inc., Coming, New York
WARREN R. MUIR,
Hampshire Research Institute, Alexandria, Virginia
ROBERT C. REPETTO,
World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
MICHAEL J. WRIGHT,
United Steelworkers of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Staff
LEE R. PAULSON, Project Director
RAYMOND A. WASSEL, Program Director
BONNIE A. SCARBOROUGH, Research Assistant
KATHRINE IVERSON, Project Assistant
ROBERT SCHAFRIK, Director,
National Materials Advisory Board
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
PAUL G. RISSER (Chair),
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
MAY R. BERENBAUM,
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
EULA BINGHAM,
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
PAUL BUSCH,
Malcolm Pirnie, Inc., White Plains, New York
EDWIN H. CLARK II,
Clean Sites, Inc., Alexandria, Virginia
ELLIS COWLING,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
GEORGE P. DASTON,
The Procter & Gamble Co., Cincinnati, Ohio
PETER L. DEFUR,
Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
DAVID L. EATON,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
DIANA FRECKMAN,
Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado
ROBERT A. FROSCH,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
DANIEL KREWSKI,
Health & Welfare Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
RAYMOND C. LOEHR,
The University of Texas, Austin, Texas
WARREN MUIR,
Hampshire Research Institute, Alexandria, Virginia
GORDON ORIANS,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
GEOFFREY PLACE,
Hilton Head, South Carolina
BURTON H. SINGER,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
MARGARET STRAND,
Bayh, Connaughton and Malone, Washington, D.C.
BAILUS WALKER, JR.,
Howard University, Washington, D.C.
GERALD N. WOGAN,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
TERRY F. YOSIE, E.
Bruce Harrison Co., Washington, D.C.
Staff
JAMES J. REISA, Director
DAVID J. POLICANSKY, Associate Director and Program Director for Natural Resources and Applied Ecology
CAROL A. MACZKA, Program Director for Toxicology and Risk Assessment
LEE R. PAULSON, Program Director for Information Systems and Statistics
RAYMOND A. WASSEL, Program Director for Environmental Sciences and Engineering
NATIONAL MATERIALS ADVISORY BOARD
ROBERT A. LAUDISE (Chair),
Lucent Technologies Inc., Murray Hill, New Jersey
REZA ABBASCHIAN,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
JAN D. ACHENBACH,
Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
MICHAEL I. BASKES,
Sandia/Livermore National Laboratory, Albuquerque, New Mexico
I. MELVIN BERNSTEIN,
Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts
JOHN V. BUSCH,
IBIS Associates, Inc., Wellesley, Massachusetts
HARRY E. COOK,
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
EDWARD C. DOWLING,
Cyprus Amax Minerals Company, Denver, Colorado
ROBERT EAGAN,
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
ANTHONY G. EVANS,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
CAROLYN HANSSON,
University of Waterloo, Canada
MICHAEL JAFFE,
Hoechst Celanese Corporation, Summit, New Jersey
LIONEL C. KIMERLING,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
RICHARD S. MULLER,
Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center and University of California, Berkeley, California
ELSA REICHMANIS,
Lucent Technologies Inc., Murray Hill, New Jersey
EDGAR A. STARKE,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
KATHLEEN C. TAYLOR,
General Motors Corporation, Warren, Michigan
JAMES WAGNER,
The John Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
JOSEPH WIRTH,
Raychem Corporation, Menlo Park, California
ROBERT SCHAFRIK, Board Director
COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER (Chair),
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
PATRICK R. ATKINS,
Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
JAMES P. BRUCE,
Canadian Climate Program Board, Ottawa, Ontario
WILLIAM L. FISHER,
University of Texas, Austin, Texas
JERRY F. FRANKLIN,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
DEBRA KNOPMAN,
Progressive Foundation, Washington, D.C.
PERRY L. McCARTY,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
JUDITH E. McDOWELL,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
S. GEORGE PHILANDER,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
RAYMOND A. PRICE,
Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario
THOMAS C. SCHELLING,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
ELLEN SILBERGELD,
University of Maryland Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland
STEVEN M. STANLEY,
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL,
Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida
Staff
STEPHEN RATTIEN, Executive Director
STEPHEN D. PARKER, Associate Executive Director
MORGAN GOPNIK, Assistant Executive Director
GREGORY SYMMES, Reports Officer
JAMES MALLORY, Administrative Officer
SANDI FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate
SUSAN SHERWIN, Project Assistant
COMMISSION ON ENGINEERING AND TECHNICAL SYSTEMS
ALBERT R. C. WESTWOOD (Chair),
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
NAOMI F. COLLINS,
Association of International Educators, Washington, D.C.
NANCY R. CONNERY,
Woolwich, Maine
RICHARD A. CONWAY,
Union Carbide Corporation, South Charleston, West Virginia
SAMUEL C. FLORMAN,
Kreisler Borg Florman Construction Company, Scarsdale, New York
TREVOR O. JONES,
Libbey-Owens-Ford Company, Cleveland, Ohio
NANCY G. LEVESON,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
BRADFORD W. PARKINSON,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
ALTON D. SLAY,
Slay Enterprises, Inc., Warrenton, Virginia
JAMES J. SOLBERG,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
BARRY M. TROST,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
GEORGE L. TURIN,
Berkeley, California
WILLIAM C. WEBSTER,
University of California, Berkeley, California
DEBORAH A. WHITEHURST,
Arizona Community Foundation, Phoenix, Arizona
ROBERT V. WHITMAN,
Lexington, Massachusetts
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William Wulf is acting president of the National Academy of Engineering.
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The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. William Wulf are chairman and interim vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
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