Index
A
Adenylate cyclase, 191
Adequate Intakes (AIs), see also Calcium AIs;
Fluoride, AIs;
Vitamin D, AIs
applicable population, 22
criteria used to derive, 12-13
defined, 4, 6, 24, 25, 48, 301, 315, 317
derivation of, 4, 5-8, 32-33, 48-50, 317
discrepancies between usual intakes and, 324
extrapolation from other age groups, 26
increasing consumption of nutrients, 10-12, 28, 323
indicators used to set, 27, 40, 91, 261-263, 298-301
replacement of, 25
safety factors, 8
uncertainty in, 317
Adolescents, 9 through 18 years.
See also Puberty
ages 9 through 13 years, 34, 41, 99-106, 169-173, 210-218, 268-269, 303;
see also Puberty
ages 14 through 18 years, 34, 99-106, 169-173, 179, 180, 186-187, 210-218, 219, 239, 240, 241, 303
Body Mass Index, 36
bone mineral content, 100, 101-102, 103, 133-134
bone mineral density, 100, 102, 103, 104-105
calcium, 41, 73, 75, 87, 99-106, 143, 144, 215, 324, 396
indicators used to set AIs, 100-105
indicators used to set EARs, 169-172, 210-212
lactation, 133-134, 179, 180, 241
magnesium, 194, 195, 206, 210-213, 214-215, 216-219, 240, 241, 244-246, 268
phosphorus, 154, 159, 165, 169-173, 177-178, 179, 180, 184-185, 186, 187-189, 321
pregnancy, 114, 177-178, 239, 240, 276
ULs, 141-142, 188, 244-246, 285, 310-311
vitamin D, 262, 268-269, 276, 277, 284-285, 286
weights and heights, reference, 35-36
Adults, 19 through 30 years
calcium, 75-76, 87, 106-109, 111, 397
derivation of DRIs for, 34-35
energy expenditure, 34-35
indicators used to set AIs, 107-108, 269-270
indicators used to set EARs, 173-174, 219-221
magnesium, 219-223, 239, 241, 244-246
phosphorus, 173-175, 177-179, 186-187, 188-189
ULs, 137-141, 186-187, 244-246, 281-283, 310-311
weights and heights, reference, 36
Adults, 31 through 50 years
derivation of DRIs for, 34-35
energy metabolism, 35
fluoride, 303
indicators used to set AIs, 109-110, 269-270
indicators used to set EARs, 173-174, 223-226
magnesium, 207, 223-228, 239, 241, 244-246
phosphorus, 173-175, 177-179, 186-187
ULs, 137-141, 186-187, 244-246, 281-283, 310-311
Adults, 51 through 70 years
bone loss, 271-272
bone mineral density, 112, 113-114
calcium, 111-115
derivation of DRIs for, 35
energy expenditures, 35
fluoride, 303
indicators used to set EARs, 228
indicators used to set AIs, 111-114, 271-272
ULs, 137-141, 186-187, 244-246, 281-283, 310-311
vitamin D, 263, 271-272, 281-283
Adults, +70 years
bone mineral density, 116
fluoride, 303
fracture rates, 115-116
indicators used to set AIs, 115-116, 231-232, 273-274
magnesium, 195, 200, 201-202, 203, 204, 207, 231-234, 245
ULs, 142, 188, 244-246, 281-283, 310-311
African Americans
blood pressure, 89
bone mass, 73
bone mineral content, 97
lactose intolerance, 80
magnesium, 195
phosphorus, 149
puberty, 34
Alcohol consumption and alcoholism, 157, 191, 193, 200, 203, 204, 206, 207
Aluminum, 148, 157, 219, 243, 245
American Academy of Pediatrics, 32, 33, 295, 305
American Dental Association, 295, 304, 305
Anemia, 157
Animal studies
extrapolation of data from, 54, 57, 62-63
Antacids, 139, 148, 157, 243, 245
Asians
blood pressure, 89
magnesium, 200
B
Balance studies.
See also Calcium balance studies
adolescents, 169, 212, 214-215
calcium, 314
magnesium, 17, 40-41, 192, 204-205, 208-209, 211-212, 214-215, 218, 219-221, 223-227, 228, 229, 231, 234, 240-241, 245, 249
methodological considerations, 40-41, 42, 50, 88
older adults (+70), 231
phosphorus, 9, 40, 154, 158, 161, 164, 166-167, 168, 169, 171, 176-177
young adults, 219-221
Bioavailability of nutrients
calcium, 47-48, 59, 61, 73-74, 80, 94-95
cross-cultural differences in, 47-48
factors affecting, 59, 60-62, 73-74, 151-154
fluoride, 291
from infant formula, 94-95
and risk assessment, 59, 60-62, 66
vegetarian diets and, 80
Bisphosphonate, 278
Blood pressure, 199-200.
See also Hypertension
Body mass.
See Lean body mass
Body Mass Index, 36
Bone
biologically significant nutrients, 38-39, 288-289
collagen by-products, 258
malignancy, 278
matrix proteins, 38-39
metabolism, 41, 38-39, 71, 99-100, 120, 144, 201, 254, 257-258, 284-285
pain, 157
remodeling, 41, 71, 86-87, 88, 102, 114, 289
Bone fracture
calcium and, 6, 9, 13, 76, 83, 84-85, 90, 112-113, 115-116, 121, 123, 126-127, 144, 314-315
fluoride and, 300
gender differences, 90
hip, 47-48, 76, 83, 85, 121, 127
older adults, 115-116
osteoporotic, 9, 47-48, 83, 84-85
predictors of risk, 85
race/ethnicity and, 73, 83, 84-85, 90
Bone loss
caffeine and, 76
calcium intakes and, 75, 76, 77-80, 82-83, 87-88, 112
lactation and, 122
menopausal status and, 77-80
sodium and, 75
vitamin D and, 271-272
Bone mass
calcium intake and, 13, 15, 74, 85-87
fluoride and, 307
and fractures, 13
gender and, 106-107
measurements, 9, 85-86, 89, 102, 104
peak, 34, 86, 87, 102, 106-107, 259
physical activity and, 74-75
race/ethnicity and, 73
vitamin D and, 259, 263-264, 271-272, 278
Bone mineral content (BMC)
and body weight, 97
calcium, 6, 7, 9, 15, 38, 78-79, 97-98, 100, 101-102, 103, 106-107, 144
children, 97-98
defined, 85
infants, 95
phosphorus, 38, 68, 146, 151, 153, 161, 163, 164, 170, 189
race/ethnicity and, 97
young adults, 106-107
Bone mineral density (BMD)
caffeine and, 76
calcium and, 6, 9, 71, 74 76, 78-79, 80-81, 102, 103, 104-105, 110, 112, 113-114, 116, 120-121, 123, 126-129, 132, 144
defined, 85
lactation and, 123, 126-129, 132
research recommendations, 189
vegetarian diets and, 80-81
vitamin D and, 14, 260, 261, 264, 271-272, 274
Breastfeeding.
See also Human milk;
Lactation
twins, 132-133
British Paediatric Association, 284
C
Calcification of tissues, 136, 180, 183, 184-185, 187, 198, 280, 281, 300, 307
Calcitonin, 193
Calcium
absorption, 72-73, 76, 77, 85, 92, 93, 94-96, 97, 100, 104, 115, 117, 120, 122, 123, 124-125, 126, 134, 135, 141, 142, 147, 154, 180, 185-186, 250, 254, 255, 275
accretion, 6, 7, 9, 15, 87, 92-93, 95, 97, 98, 99, 107, 111, 120
adolescents, 49, 71, 75, 99-106, 215
data availability, 90-91
estimating requirements for, 84-91;
see also Calcium AIs
excretion, 72-73, 75, 76 80, 96-97, 104, 111, 120, 122, 126, 136
intakes, see Calcium intakes
interactions with other nutrients, see Calcium interactions
intervention studies, 97-98, 110
kinetic studies, 182-183
metabolism, 48, 73, 87, 134, 259, 261;
see also Calcium balance studies
physiological role, 71
research recommendations, 13, 144-145
supplements, 45-46, 74, 77-80, 82, 86, 89, 97-98, 102, 110, 112, 114, 116, 120-121, 123, 126, 130-131, 134, 135, 137, 138, 213, 318, 324
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels, see Calcium ULs
uncertainty factor, 68
Calcium AIs
adolescents, 99-106, 118-119, 122, 133-134, 324
adults, middle age, 109-115, 118-119
balance studies, 6-7, 9, 15, 48-50, 93-94, 96-97, 98, 100-101, 107-108, 109-110, 111-115, 314-315
biochemical and absorption studies, 124-125
bone mass measurements and, 85-87
bone mineral content, 95, 97-98, 100, 101-102, 103, 117, 118-119, 122, 133-134
bone mineral density and, 110, 116, 117, 118-119, 120-121, 123, 126-131
calcium accretion and, 92-93, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 107
calcium retention and, 87-89, 93, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 107-108, 109-110, 394-398
for children, 12, 75, 96-99, 118-119
chronic disease risk and, 89-90, 99
clinical trials, 6, 7, 48, 49, 101-102, 103, 104, 105, 119, 123
cross-cultural considerations, 47
derivation, 6-7, 41, 48-50, 96-97;
see also Calcium balance studies;
Calcium retention
discrepancies between usual intakes and, 324
epidemiological evidence, 104-105
factorial approach, 6, 15, 48, 49, 102, 104, 105, 108, 109, 110-111, 118-119
fracture risk, 84-85, 115-116, 123, 126-127
gender differences, 71, 75, 99-100, 104, 107, 109, 111-115, 388-389
human milk intake and, 92
indicators used to set, 9, 84-91, 91-94, 96-98, 100-105, 107-108, 109-114, 115-116, 117, 120-121, 123, 126-127, 137, 314-315
lactation and, 122-134
by life-stage group, 12, 15, 91-134, 388-389
older adults (70+), 12, 115-117, 118-119, 127
physical activity and, 74-75, 76
pregnancy and, 12, 15, 20, 72, 89-90, 117, 120-122, 127, 132
racial/ethnic differences, 73, 100
sexual maturity and, 99-100
Calcium balance studies, 215, 314
AI derivation, 6-7, 9, 15, 48-50, 93-94, 96-97, 100-101, 105, 107-108, 109-110, 111-115
adults, middle age, 109-110, 113, 114
bone mass measurements and, 86
methodological considerations, 40-41, 50, 88
pregnancy, 120
protein interaction, 75-76
research recommendations, 144-145
uncertainties in values from, 7, 50, 91
young adults, 75-76, 107-108, 109
amenorrheic women, 76
and bone loss, 75, 76, 77-80, 82-83, 132-133
and fractures, 6, 9, 13, 76, 83, 84-85, 90, 112-113, 115-116, 121, 123, 126-127, 314-315
lactose intolerance and, 80
and osteopenia, 83
and osteoporosis, 9, 47-48, 76, 82, 83, 84-85, 113, 115
and prostate cancer, 13
Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention trial, 89-90
Calcium intakes
and absorption of calcium, 71, 72, 97, 100
adolescents, 105-106, 194, 324, 396
bioavailability, 47-48, 73-74, 80, 92
and bone mass, 13, 15, 74, 85-88, 106-107
and bone mineral content, 6, 7, 15, 38, 78-79, 98
and bone mineral density, 74, 76, 78-79, 80-81, 112
and calcium retention, 111-112, 114
and colon cancer, 90
and chronic disease risk, 89-90, 99
cross-cultural differences, 47-48, 82
disappearance data, 45
experimentally derived, 7, 100-101
food and water sources, 45, 47, 73-74, 80, 81-82, 110, 318, 324
gender differences, 44, 81, 82, 105-106, 117, 388-389
human milk, 91-94
and hypertension, 89-90
inadequate,
see Calcium deficiency
increasing, strategies for, 324
lactation and, 127
lactose intolerance and, 80
by life-stage group, 43, 44, 81-82, 388-389
menopausal status and, 72, 75, 76, 77-81, 112-113, 201
older adults (+70), 117
plateau, 87, 101, 108, 109-110, 115, 116, 394
pregnancy and, 121-122
quality of data, 100
vegetarian diets and, 80-81
young adults, 75-76, 106-107, 109, 397
Calcium interactions, 59, 68, 152-154, 195
caffeine, 76
chloride, 61
dietary fiber, 135
estrogen, 76, 77, 88, 113, 115, 126
magnesium, 135, 137, 142, 191, 194, 197, 200, 201, 213, 214-215, 225, 229, 239
parathyroid hormone, 72, 73, 75, 82-83, 117, 120, 132
phosphorus, 61, 135, 137, 151, 152-154, 156, 158, 160-161, 174, 176, 178, 180, 181-184, 185-186
vitamin D, 14, 38, 39, 77, 83, 85, 116, 117, 122, 132, 250-253, 254, 255, 258-263, 264, 265, 273, 274, 275, 278, 281-282, 285, 286, 287
Calcium-regulating hormones, 181-184
Calcium retention
adolescents, 87, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 117, 118-119, 396
adults, middle age, 109-110, 111-112, 398
AI derivation, 87-89, 93, 99, 100-101, 104, 105, 107-108, 394-398
bone mass measurements, 85-86
calcium intakes and, 111-112, 114
desirable, 6-7, 15, 48-49, 87-88, 91, 107-108, 110, 111-112, 117, 118-119, 144, 314-315, 394-398
extrapolation from other age groups, 15
factors affecting, 49, 71, 72, 87
gender differences, 111-114, 118-119
methodological considerations, 41
pregnancy and, 120
protein and, 75-76
young adults, 87, 107-108, 397
See also Calcium interactions
adults, 137-141
critical endpoint, 137-138, 140
data selection, 137-138
derivation of, 140-141
dose-response assessment, 68, 137-143
exposure assessment, 143
gender differences, 135
hazard identification, 134-137
infants, 141
and milk-alkali syndrome, 136-137, 138, 139, 140-141
and nephrolithiasis (renal stones), 13, 68, 134-136, 137, 138
older adults (70+), 142
pregnancy and lactation, 142
risk characterization, 143
special considerations, 142-143
uncertainty assessment, 140
Canada
bone mineral content in adolescents, 170
dietary intake data, 43, 47, 81, 292-293
fluoride, 292-293, 295, 302, 305, 312
magnesium standards, 30
osteoporosis, 83
phosphorus standards, 31
reference nutrient values, 29-31
weights and heights, reference, 36
Canadian Paediatric Society, 32, 33, 295, 305
Cancer.
See individual sites
Cardiovascular diseases, 9, 144
magnesium and, 14, 191, 197-200, 203, 204, 207, 222, 243, 247
vitamin D and, 281
Caucasians
blood pressure, 89
bone mineral content, 97
lactose intolerance, 80
osteoporosis, 83
phosphorus, 149
Children, ages 4 through 8 years.
See also Life-stage groups;
Toddlers
balance studies, 164, 168, 211-212
blood pressure, 89
bone mineral accretion, 14, 88, 89, 97-98
calcium, 14, 46, 73, 74, 75, 82, 85-86, 88, 89, 96-99, 136, 141-142, 143, 144
chronic illness, 99
derivation of DRIs for, 34, 37
fluoride, 289, 290, 291-292, 293, 294-296, 298-299, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308-309, 311-312
growth spurts, 14
indicators used to set AIs, 96-98, 266-267
indicators used to set EARs, 166-168, 210-212
magnesium, 14, 30, 41, 46, 196, 205-206, 210-212, 213, 216, 246, 247-248
phosphorus, 14, 30, 31, 46, 149, 156, 158-159, 164, 166-169, 186, 187
physical exercise, 74
sodium, 75
vitamin D, 14, 46, 257-258, 259, 260, 262-263, 266-268, 284-285
weights and heights, reference, 35-36, 37
Cholecalciferol, 250, 251, 252, 255, 256, 259, 271
Chromium, 66
Chronic disease.
See also specific diseases
risk reduction as indicator of nutrient adequacy, 8, 40
Collagen cross-linking, 38, 75-76
Constipation, 136
Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, 42, 43, 387
calcium intakes, 81, 109, 115, 117, 121-122, 127, 143, 388-389
magnesium intakes, 195, 216, 217-218, 219, 222, 227, 230-231, 238, 239, 241-242, 392-393
phosphorus intakes, 154, 163, 166, 168, 172, 174-176, 177-178, 184, 188-189, 321, 390-391
Coronary artery disease, 247
Critical endpoint
defined, 66
fluoride, 308-309
magnesium, 244-245
phosphorus, 186-187
vitamin D, 68, 281-282, 283-284
Cross-cultural differences.
See Race/ethnicity
D
Dairy products
calcium, 47, 73, 74, 80, 81-82, 89, 110, 143
lactose intolerance, 80
magnesium, 200
phosphorus, 156
Data and database issues
availability of data, 68, 167, 169, 175
critical data set, 66
for dose-response assessment, 281, 283
for hazard identification, 62-63
magnesium, 244
quality and completeness of, 64
selection for dose-response assessment, 65-66, 244
Dental caries, 8, 19, 288-289, 290, 291, 297-300, 301, 302, 313
Dental products, fluoride in, 45, 291, 295-296, 300, 311-312, 318
Diabetes mellitus
calcium and, 99
magnesium and, 14, 191, 200, 201-202, 203, 204, 207, 239-240
phosphorus and, 157
Diarrhea, 157, 242, 243, 244-245, 318
Diet and Health report, 8, 40, 63
Dietary fiber, 127, 192, 193, 199, 219, 221, 223, 224, 226, 229
Dietary intakes.
See also Supplements;
specific nutrients
adjustment of, 319-323
and bioavailability, 61
breast-fed infants, 93-94
cross-cultural differences, 47-48
fluoride, 291-296, 301, 308-309
food composition databases, 42-43, 262
gender differences, 387-393
self-reported, 42, 43, 81, 319
sources of data, 43-44
uses of data, 47
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)
applicable population, 22
assessment applications, 10, 11, 21, 314, 316-317, 319-322
see also Adequate Intakes;
Estimated Average Requirements;
Recommended Dietary Allowance;
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels
country reference values compared, 28-31
dietary intakes compared, 43
extrapolation from other age groups, 33
framework, 378-379
generalizability to other populations, 2, 47
group applications, 11, 317, 319-323
individuals applications, 11, 315-317
international application, 2, 10
by national and federal agencies, 323
origin, 375-376
parameters for, 31-37;
see also Life-stage groups;
Reference weights and heights
planning applications, 11, 21, 314, 322-323
rationale for, 376-378
see also Methodological considerations
uses, 10, 11, 21, 27-28, 47, 314-317, 319-323
WHO/FAO/IAEA approach compared, 22
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D, 260
calcium regulation, 38, 77, 117, 120, 122-123, 132, 250
and granulomatous diseases, 255, 285
half-life, 254
and hypercalcemia, 255
and hypercalciuria, 255
and hypervitaminosis D, 278
and hypovitaminosis D, 258, 268
as indicator of vitamin D status, 260
phosphorus and, 38, 147-148, 151, 176, 181, 250, 254
24,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D, 254
Dose-response assessment
adolescents, 187-188, 244-246, 310-311
adults, 137-141, 186-187, 281-282, 310-311
children, 187, 284-285, 308-309
components and process, 55, 57, 65-69
critical endpoint, 66, 137-138, 140, 186-187, 244-245, 308-309
data selection, 65-66, 137-138, 244, 281, 283, 308, 309, 310
derivation of UL, 68, 282-283, 309, 310-311
infants, 187, 283-284, 308-309
NOAEL/LOAEL identification, 66, 137-138, 140, 186-187, 244-245, 281-282, 283-284, 308-309, 310
older adults, 188
special considerations, 68-69, 285
uncertainty assessment, 66-68, 187, 245, 282, 284, 309, 310
Drinking water
calcium in, 198
fluoride in, 45, 291-292, 293, 295, 297-300, 301, 305, 307, 308, 310, 312-313, 318
Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, 9, 85, 89, 97, 102, 104, 164
E
Early childhood.
See Children, ages 4 through 8 years
Education of consumers, 10, 28, 323
Elderly people.
See Adults, +70 years
Enamel fluorosis, 298-299, 300-302, 305-307, 308-309, 311-313, 318
End-stage renal disease, 151, 184-185, 186
Energy metabolism, 9, 12, 20, 23, 24, 28, 29, 34-35, 190, 205, 212, 316
Environmental exposures to dietary agents, 53, 58
Estimated Average Requirements (EARs).
See also individual nutrients
coefficient of variation, 3, 322-323
country comparisons, 29
indicators used to set, 27, 158-159, 164-166
standard deviation, 3
uses, 3, 10, 11, 23, 24, 25, 319-323
Estrogen
and calcium, 76, 77-80, 88, 109-110, 115, 126
and magnesium, 201
Ethnic background.
See Race/ethnicity
Exposure
duration of, 64
Exposure assessment
calcium, 143
fluoride, 311-312
magnesium, 247-248
phosphorus, 188-189
vitamin D, 285-286
F
Factorial approach
calcium, 6, 7, 48, 49, 102, 104, 105, 108, 109, 110-111
phosphorus, 16, 40, 164-166, 168, 170, 172
Fetal
calcium needs, 117
growth retardation, 234, 235-237
sensitivity to nutrients, 60, 303-304
Fiber.
See Dietary fiber
Fluorhydroxyapatite, 288
Fluoride
adults, 289, 293, 296, 301, 303
AIs, 8, 14, 19, 40, 50, 298-300, 301-306
balance studies, 289, 300-301, 304
bioavailability, 291
and bone mineral content, 38, 288, 300, 307, 310
and calcification of tissues, 300, 307, 313
and calcium, 288, 289, 290, 291
children, 289, 290, 291-292, 293, 294-296, 298-299, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308-309, 311-312
and dental caries, 8, 14, 19, 50, 288-289, 290, 297-300, 301, 302, 313
in dental products, 45, 291, 295-296, 300, 307, 311-312, 318
in drinking water, 45, 291-292, 293, 295, 297-300, 301, 305, 307, 308, 310, 318
and enamel fluorosis, 298-299, 300-302, 305-307, 308-309, 311-313, 318
factors affecting nutrient requirement, 291
and geographic differences, 298-300, 307-308
in human milk, 19, 291, 292, 301, 302, 305, 306, 311
indicators of nutrient requirements, 19, 40, 298-301
infants, 290, 293, 295, 300, 301-302, 304, 305-306, 309, 311, 312
intakes, 45, 291-296, 301, 306, 308
interactions with food components, 291
international comparisons, 298-300
lactation and, 12, 19, 305-306
life-stage group and, 19, 301-306
menopausal status and, 300
and osteoporosis, 288, 300, 307
and osteosclerosis, 307, 308, 310
phosphate, 290
physiological role, 288-289
pregnancy and, 12, 19, 303-305
research recommendations, 14, 313
skeletal fluorosis, 307-308, 310-311
special considerations, 305-306, 311
supplements, 295, 298-299, 302, 304, 311-312
sustained release form, 288
toothpastes, 291, 295-296, 300
young adults, 289
Food additives, 57, 154, 155, 180, 189
Food and Agriculture Organization, 22, 52, 319, 322
Food composition databases, 42-43
Food sources
phosphorus, 151-152, 155-156, 161, 173-174, 180, 181, 183-184, 189
vitamin D, 256-257, 261-262, 268, 269, 270, 271, 283, 284, 285-286
Formulas, infant
bioavailability of nutrients from, 32, 94-95, 96, 210
fluoride in, 291, 292, 293, 301-302, 306
magnesium, 210
phosphorus, 149, 152, 153, 155, 159, 161, 163, 183
special considerations, 163, 210, 265
Fortified foods, 4, 10-11, 12, 26, 28, 59, 143, 256, 261-262, 283, 284, 285-286, 318.
See also Formulas, infant
Fracture.
See Bone fracture
G
Gender differences.
See also Men;
Women
bone fracture rates, 90
bone mass, peak, 106-107
calcium, 44, 46, 81, 82, 99-100, 104, 106, 107, 109, 388-389
extrapolation between groups, 90-91
magnesium, 12, 17, 46, 196, 199, 214-215, 216-231, 392-393
phosphorus, 46, 154, 155, 156, 168, 172-173, 174-176, 390-391
puberty onset, 34
vitamin D, 14, 256, 257, 269, 271, 272, 274
Geographic variables
vitamin D, 14, 259, 264-267, 269-270, 271, 273, 274, 281, 284, 286
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 27, 149, 150, 160, 175, 184-185, 280, 289
Grain products, 73, 81-82, 152, 161, 173, 193, 195, 256
Growth
factors, 191
magnesium and, 205-206
H
Hazard identification, 69
calcium, 134-137
evaluation process, 55, 57, 63-64
fluoride, 306-308
magnesium, 242-244
phosphorus, 180-186
vitamin D, 277-281
Health Canada, 1
Height.
See Reference weights and heights
Hispanics
blood pressure, 89
bone mineral content, 97
magnesium, 195-196
vitamin D, 260
Hormones, calcium-regulating, 181-184
Human milk.
See also Breastfeeding;
Lactation
bioavailability of nutrients, 88
fluoride, 19, 291, 292, 301, 302, 305, 311
phosphorus, 16, 148, 149, 152, 153, 155, 160-163, 178, 183
vitamin D, 262, 263, 264, 265-266, 276-277
Hydroxyapatite, 71, 147, 151, 153, 200, 288
25-Hydroxyvitamin D
and granulomatous diseases, 285
half-life, 254
and hypervitaminosis D, 277-278, 285
and hypovitaminosis D, 259-260, 263-277
lactation and, 276-277
and linear growth, 263-264
normal range, 286-287
parathyroid hormone and, 259-260
placental transfer, 276
and pregnancy, 275-276
and puberty, 286
Hypercalcemia, 134, 136, 137, 138, 141, 182, 192, 255, 278, 280, 281-283, 284, 285
Hypercalciuria, 120, 135, 138, 140, 141, 255, 318
Hyperparathyroidism, 84, 136, 193, 258, 270, 273, 274, 278, 280
Hyperphosphatemia, 148, 151, 158, 180-189
Hypertension, 9
calcium intake and, 89-90, 144
magnesium and, 14, 199-200, 207, 234-237, 244, 249
preeclampsia, 89-90, 234, 235-238, 244
Hypervitaminosis D, 184-185, 186, 256, 277-287
Hypocalcemia, 96, 182, 183, 197, 239
Hypomagnesemia, 191, 193, 195, 197-203, 206, 235, 239, 249
Hypoparathyroidism, 193
Hypophosphatemia, 156-157, 158
Hypovitaminosis D, 253, 254, 257-258, 259, 263-264, 267, 271
I
Indicators of nutrient adequacy.
See also specific indicators, nutrients, and life stages
deficiency-based, 8-9
methodological considerations, 39-40
Infants, premature, 95, 122, 208, 236
Infants, 0 to 12 months.
See also Formulas, infant;
Human milk
accretion of nutrients, 161
ages 0 through 6 months, 32-33, 48, 93-94, 163, 209, 263-265, 301-302
ages 7 through 12 months, 33, 94, 161, 162-163, 209, 265-266, 302
AI derivation for, 4, 5, 25, 26, 31-33, 40, 48, 91-96, 162-163, 209, 264-265, 266
bone mass, 263-264
breast-fed, 4, 5, 32, 48, 91-94, 160, 183, 208, 263
calcium, 72, 91-96, 120, 122, 141, 183
country comparison of groups, 29
fluoride, 290, 293, 295, 300, 301-302, 304, 305, 306, 309, 311, 312
indicators used to set AIs, 160-161, 208-209, 263-266
linear growth, 263-264
low birth weight, 122, 235, 265
magnesium, 206, 208-210, 234, 235, 236, 243, 246
phosphorus, 32, 146, 148-149, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158-159, 160-163, 176-177, 183, 186-187
sensitivity to nutrients, 60
serum inorganic phosphorus, 160-161
serum 25(OH)D, 263-266
solid foods, 33, 94, 96, 141, 161, 162, 209
ULs, 141, 187, 246, 283-284, 308-309
vitamin D, 68, 259, 260, 262-266, 269-270, 275, 277, 283-284
Interactions.
See Nutrient-nutrient interactions
International reference values
comparison, by country, 28-31
fluoride comparisons, 298-300
generalizability of DRIs, 10
phosphorus, 30
Intracellular magnesium, 17, 203-204, 232, 234
Iron, 59, 61, 64, 66, 137, 140, 141, 142, 180-181, 189
J
Japanese-American women, 85, 200
Joint FAO/WHP Expert Commission on Food Additives, 56-57
K
Kinetic studies, 182-183
L
Lactation.
See also Breastfeeding;
Human milk
adolescents, 133-134, 179, 180, 241
biochemical and absorption studies, 124-125
and bone fracture, 123, 126-127
and bone mineral density, 126-132
and bone mineral mass, 15, 123, 126-127
derivation of DRIs for, 35
indicators used to set AIs, 123, 126-127, 276-277
indicators used to set EARs, 178, 240-241
magnesium and, 17, 240-242, 247
phosphorus and, 16, 178-180, 188
and serum inorganic phosphate, 178
serum 25(OH)D, 276-277
twins/multiple infants, 180, 242
ULs, 142, 188, 246-247, 285, 311
vitamin D, 18, 122-123, 276-277, 285
Lean body mass, 17, 59-60, 170, 211, 217, 238, 316
Life-stage groups.
See also Adolescents;
Adults;
Children;
Infants;
Toddlers
Body Mass Index by, 36
and derivation of DRIs, 31-35
intakes of nutrients by, 44
international comparisons, 28-30
magnesium DRIs by, 17, 208-242, 392-393
phosphorus, 16, 160-180, 390-391
weights and heights, reference, 35-37
Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level
defined, 57
identification of, 66
intake data and, 47
magnesium, 244-245
phosphorus, 186-187
and UL derivation, 68
uncertainty factor, 67-68
M
Magnesium
absorption, 192, 193-194, 195, 202, 210, 218, 238, 242-243, 245
accretion, 205-206, 211, 222, 238
adolescents, 194, 195, 206, 210-213, 214-215, 216-219, 240, 244-246, 268
adults, 194, 206, 207, 219-231, 244-246
and alcoholism, 191, 193, 200, 203, 204, 206, 207
balance studies, 17, 40-41, 193, 204-205, 208-209, 211-212, 214-215, 218, 219-221, 223-227, 228, 229, 231, 234, 240-241, 245, 248
bioavailability, 193, 205, 210, 238
and blood pressure, 199-200
and bone mineral density, 200, 201
calcium and, 135, 137, 142, 191, 194, 197, 200, 201, 213, 214-215, 225, 229, 239
cardiovascular effects, 14, 191, 197-200, 203, 204, 207, 222, 243, 247
children, 14, 30, 41, 196, 205-206, 210-213, 216, 246, 247-248, 316
country reference values compared, 30
critical endpoints, 244-245
data selection, 244
deficiency/depletion, 191, 193, 195, 197-203, 204, 206, 234, 235, 239-240
and diabetes mellitus, 14, 191, 200, 201-202, 203, 204, 207, 239-240
and diarrhea, 242, 243, 244-245, 318
dietary fiber and, 192, 193, 199, 219, 221, 223, 224, 226, 229
and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 192, 197
distribution and function, 190-191
dose-response relationship, 68, 244-247
EARs, 9, 17, 211, 212, 216-242
energy requirements and, 190, 205, 212, 316
epidemiological studies and meta- analysis, 198, 207-208
estimating requirements for, 202-208
estrogen and, 201
excretion, 193, 194, 202, 204, 206-207, 213, 233, 241, 242
exposure assessment, 247-248
factors affecting requirement, 193-195
food and water sources, 45, 193, 196, 198, 199-200, 207
gender differences, 17, 30, 193, 195-196, 199, 214-215, 216-232, 392-393
hazard identification, 242-244
and 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 192, 197
and hypertension, 14, 199-200, 207, 234, 235-237, 244, 249
indicators of nutrient adequacy, 9, 17, 202-209, 210-212, 219-221, 223-226, 228, 231-232, 234-238
in infant formulas, 209-210
infants, 206, 208-210, 234, 235, 236, 243, 246, 247
intakes, 43, 44, 45-46, 48, 193, 195-196, 207, 216, 217-218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 227, 229, 230-231, 233, 234, 235, 238, 239, 241-242, 248, 392-393
interactions with other nutrients, 191, 192, 193, 194-195, 197, 200, 214-215, 224, 239
international comparisons, 209, 234-235
intracellular, 17, 203-204, 232, 234
lactation and, 17, 20, 240-242, 247
and malabsorption syndromes, 191, 203
and medicines, 193, 198, 205, 232, 242-244, 245, 247, 249, 318
menopausal status and, 200, 201, 245
and neuromuscular disorders, 191, 197
NOAEL/LOAELs, 244-245
older adults (+70), 195, 200, 201-202, 203, 204, 207, 231-234, 245
and osteoporosis, 200-201, 207-208, 249
and parathyroid hormone, 193
phosphorus and, 194
physical activity and, 195
and phytates/phytic acid, 194, 221
protein and, 194-195, 212, 213, 215, 217, 218, 221, 223, 224, 226, 229
race/ethnicity and, 195-196, 200
RDAs, 9, 17, 211, 216, 218, 219, 223, 228, 231, 233-234, 239, 241, 316
and renal function/failure, 191, 193, 201-202, 207, 227, 230, 243, 247
research recommendations, 14, 248-249
risk characterization, 248
and skeletal growth, 200-201
special populations, 195, 239-240, 242, 247
supplements, 45-46, 195, 196, 199, 201, 205, 206-207, 219, 235-237, 238, 243, 244, 246, 247-248
toddlers, 210-212, 213, 216, 246
tolerance tests, 203, 206-207, 231-233, 234-235
ULs, 13, 20, 68, 242-248, 317, 318-319
uncertainty assessment, 68, 233, 245
weights and heights and, 316
and zinc, 214
Malabsorption disorders, 191, 203, 255
Medications, interaction with nutrients, 148, 193, 198, 232, 242-244, 245, 247, 248, 275, 278
Men.
See also Gender differences
balance studies, 111-112, 219-221, 223-226, 228
indicators used to set EARs, 219-221, 223-226, 228
magnesium, 13, 41, 219-227, 228-232, vitamin D, 272
Menarche.
See Puberty/pubertal development
Menopausal status
and bone mineral density, 113-114
caffeine impacts, 76
calcium and, 72, 75, 76, 77-80, 83, 86, 109-110, 112-114
and fluoride, 300
sodium impacts, 75
vegetarian diets, 80-81
Metabolism of nutrients
fluoride, 289-290
phosphorus, 147-148
vitamin D, 250-255
Methodological considerations.
See also Data and data-base issues;
Indicators of nutrient adequacy
in balance studies, 40-41, 42, 50, 88, 211
concordance between observational and experimental data, 50, 91
data sources, 39-40
epidemiological evidence, 198
extrapolation from absorbed intake to ingested intake, 173
extrapolation from animal studies, 54, 57, 62-63, 66-67, 69, 383, 384
extrapolation from one gender group to another, 90-91, 104, 109
extrapolation from other age groups, 69, 171, 172, 212, 213, 216, 267-268
factorial approach, 40, 110-111
in intracellular magnesium studies, 232
in nutrient intake estimates, 42-43, 86
in risk assessment, 54, 383-386
Milk.
See Dairy products;
Formulas, infant;
Human milk
N
National Caries Program, 297-298
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I, 202
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey II, 43, 162, 256
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, 35, 36, 43, 81, 154, 195
National Health Interview Survey, 45, 82, 295
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, 1, 379
National Institute of Dental Research, 297-298
National Research Council, 53, 319, 385
Nephrocalcinosis, 136, 280, 281
Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones), 68, 134-136, 138, 140, 145, 280
Neuromuscular disorders, 191, 197
No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL)
defined, 57
identification of, 66
intake data and, 47
magnesium, 244-245
phosphorus, 186-187
and UL derivation, 68
uncertainty factor, 67-68
Nutrient intakes.
See also Dietary intakes;
specific nutrients
calculation of, 43
gender differences, 43-45
inadequate, prevalence of, 319, 320
increasing, strategies for, 10-12, 28, 323
methodological considerations, 42-43, 86
quality of data, 42-43
from supplements, 45-46
Nutrient-nutrient interactions.
See Calcium interactions;
specific entries under other nutrients
and bioavailability, 61
in bone metabolism, 38-39
enhancement with unfortified foods, 11-12, 28
research recommendations, 145
Nutrition Canada Survey, 36
Nutrition During Lactation, 32, 33
Nutritional status, and bioavailability of nutrients, 61
O
Older adults.
See Adults, 70+ years
Osteomalacia, 8, 50, 157, 258, 269, 274
Osteoporosis, 379
boron status and, 39
calcium and, 9, 47-48, 76, 82, 83, 113, 115, 138, 144
defined, 83
phosphorus and, 186
magnesium and, 200-201, 207-208, 248
menopausal status and, 83
protein and, 76
Oxalic acid/oxalates, 73, 80, 135, 138, 192, 223
P
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
calcium and, 72, 73, 75, 82-83, 117, 120, 132
magnesium and, 193
phosphorus and, 148, 151, 160-161, 178
vitamin D and, 252, 253, 254, 258, 259-260, 262, 264, 266, 269, 272, 274, 287
Phosphorus.
See also Hyperphosphatemia;
Hypophosphatemia
absorption, 147-148, 151, 154, 165, 168, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176-177, 181
accretion, 153, 161, 164-166, 169-171, 172
adolescents, 154, 159, 165, 169-173, 177-178, 179, 180, 184-185, 186, 187-189, 321
adults, 148-149, 153, 154, 156, 173-176, 177-180, 186-187, 188-189
balance studies, 9, 40, 154, 158, 161, 164, 166-167, 168, 169, 171, 176-177
bone mineral content, 38, 68, 146, 151, 153, 161, 163, 164, 170, 189
and calcium, 61, 135, 147, 148, 151, 152-154, 156, 158, 160-161, 174, 176, 178, 180, 181-184, 185-186
children, 30, 31, 149, 156, 158-159, 164, 166-169, 186, 187
country reference values compared, 30, 31
critical endpoint, 186-187
deficiency/depletion, 156-157
and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 147-148, 151, 176, 181
dose-response assessment, 68, 186-188
EARs, 9, 16, 166, 168, 170, 172, 174-176, 177-179
estimating requirements for, 158-159
excretion, 32, 148, 149, 165, 166, 168, 170-171, 179
exposure assessment, 188-189
extrapolation of DRIs to other ages, 16
factorial approach, 16, 40, 164-166, 168, 170, 172
factors affecting requirement, 151-154
food and water sources, 45, 151-152, 155-156, 161, 173-174, 180, 181, 183-184, 189
gender differences, 30, 31, 154, 155, 156, 168, 172-173, 174-176, 321, 390-391
hazard identification, 180-186
in human milk, 12, 16, 148, 149, 152, 153, 155, 160-163, 178, 183
indicators of nutrient adequacy, 9, 158-159, 160-162, 164-168, 169-172, 173-174, 176-177, 178
infants, 32, 146, 148-149, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158-159, 160-163, 176-177, 183, 186-187
intakes, 43, 44, 45-46, 154-156, 166, 168, 172, 174-176, 177-178, 180, 184, 188-189, 321-323, 390-391
interactions with other nutrients, 68, 148, 152-154, 157, 180-181, 189, 194
lactation and, 12, 16, 178-180, 188
by life-stage group, 16, 20, 160-180, 390-391
magnesium and, 194
and medicines, 148
metabolism, 147-148
and metastatic calcification, 180, 183, 184-185, 187
NOAEL/LOAEL, 186-187
older adults (70+), 154, 175-176, 188
and parathyroid hormone, 148, 151, 160-161, 178
physiological distribution and role, 146-147
and phytic acid/phytate, 152, 161, 173
pregnancy and, 12, 16, 176-178, 188
race/ethnicity and, 149, 183-184
RDAs, 9, 16, 166, 169, 172-173, 175, 176, 177-179, 316
renal disease and, 151, 184-185, 186, 188
research recommendations, 189
risk characterization, 189
and serum inorganic phosphate, 16, 148-151, 157, 158-159, 160-161, 162, 163, 171-172, 173-174, 178, 180, 181
and skeletal porosity, 180, 181-182, 185
special considerations, 163, 178, 180, 188
ULs, 13, 20, 68, 180-189, 318, 321-322
vitamin D and, 38, 184-185, 186
and zinc, 137, 171, 180-181, 189
Physical activity
amenorrheic women, 76
and bone mass, 88
and energy intakes, 28
magnesium and, 195
research recommendations, 144
and skeletal health, 74-75
Phytic acid and phytate, 73, 80, 152, 161, 173, 194, 221
Population Reference Intake, 29
Pregnancy.
See also Lactation
adolescents, 122, 177, 178, 239, 240, 276
and bone fracture, 121
and bone mineral density, 120-121, 122
and bone mineral mass, 15, 120-121
and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 176
and gestational diabetes, 235, 239-240
hypertension, 85, 234, 235-238, 244
indicators used to set AIs, 120-121, 275-276
indicators used to set EARs, 176-177, 234-238
intakes of nutrients, 177-178
kinetic studies, 120
and magnesium, 17, 20, 234-240, 244, 247
number and spacing, 121, 127-128
outcome studies, 234-238
and phosphorus, 12, 16, 20, 176-178, 188
preterm labor and delivery, 234, 235-238, 244
and serum 25(OH)D, 275-276
supplements during, 89-90, 235-237, 238
ULs, 13, 20, 142, 188, 247, 285, 311
vitamin D, 12, 18, 20, 120, 263, 275-276, 285
Processed and refined foods, 196.
See also Food additives
Protein, dietary
calcium interaction, 61, 75-76, 135, 144
magnesium and, 194-195, 212, 215, 217, 218, 221, 223, 224, 226, 229
Puberty/pubertal development.
See also Adolescents
age at onset, 34
calcium and, 14, 49, 72, 99-100, 102, 141
magnesium and 217
racial/ethnic differences, 34, 36-37
vitamin D and, 14, 268, 269, 286
R
Race/ethnicity
and bioavailability of nutrients, 47-48
and dietary intakes, 47-48
research recommendations, 14, 144
and vitamin D, 14, 260, 263, 269-270
Recommended Daily Nutrient Intake, 29
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
for adolescents, 172-173, 177-179, 218, 239, 241
for adults, 175, 176, 177-179, 223, 231, 233-234, 239, 241
applicable population, 22
coefficient of variation, 23-25, 216, 218
country comparisons, 29
criteria used to derive, 12, 16
increasing consumption of nutrients, 10-12, 28
gender differences, 17
for lactation, 16, 17, 178-179, 241
magnesium, 17, 211, 216, 218, 219, 223, 228, 231, 233-234, 239, 241, 316
phosphorus, 16, 166, 169, 172-173, 175, 176, 177-179, 316
for pregnancy, 16, 17, 177-178, 239
replacement with DRIs, 314
uses, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 315-317, 323
Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNI), 29, 32, 376, 377
Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI), 29
Reference weights and heights, 35-37, 212, 216, 302-303, 309, 316
Renal disease/failure/insufficiency, 60, 280
calcium and, 13, 99, 134-137, 142
magnesium and, 191, 193, 201-202, 207, 227, 230, 243, 247
phosphorus and, 151, 184-185, 186, 188
vitamin D, 280
Requirement, defined, 21
Research recommendations
balance studies, 144-145
bone mineral accretion, 14, 189
children, 14
dietary intakes, 14
disease outcomes, 13-14
epidemiological, 13
food additives, 189
geographical and racial variables, 14
methodologies related to disease outcomes, 14
phosphorus, 189
sunscreens, 14
Rickets, 8, 50, 157, 254, 257-258, 259, 260, 263, 264-265, 277
Risk, defined, 69
Risk assessment, defined, 53, 69
Risk assessment models.
See also UL modeling
application to nutrients, 13, 58-62
basic concepts, 53-54
bioavailability considerations, 59, 60-62, 66
and food safety, 53-58
nutrient interactions, 61
process, 54-56
sensitivity of individuals, 59-60
thresholds, 56-58
Risk characterization
calcium, 143
fluoride, 312-313
intake data and, 143
magnesium, 247-248
phosphorus, 189
vitamin D, 286
Risk management, 53-54, 56, 70
S
Selenium, 58
Sensitive subpopulations.
See Special considerations
Serum
calcitrol, 183
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 260
inorganic phosphate, 16, 148-151, 157, 158-159, 160-161, 162, 163, 171-172, 173-174, 178, 180, 181
magnesium, 200, 202-203, 204, 234
25(OH)D, 259-260, 263-264, 265-267, 268, 269-270, 271, 273-274, 275-277
vitamin D, 260
Skeletal health.
See also Bone;
Osteoporosis fluorosis, 307-308, 310-311, 312
magnesium and, 200-201
phosphorus and, 180, 181-182, 185
porosity, 180, 181-182, 185, 258
vitamin D and, 257-258, 260-261, 262-264
Skin melanin production, 256, 260, 261, 267
Smoking, 88
Sodium, 48, 61, 75, 138, 144, 190-191, 192, 194
Soft drinks, 156, 173-174, 180, 183-184, 291, 293-294
Special considerations
adolescent pregnancies, 114, 178, 240
breastfeeding twins, 132-133
calcium, 142-143
closely spaced pregnancies, 127-128
diabetes mellitus, 239-240
elderly people, 255
formula-fed infants, 163, 209-210, 265
granulomatous diseases, 285
identification of, 64-65
lactating adolescents, 180
magnesium, 195, 210, 239-240, 247
medications, 275
multiple infants/births, 178, 180, 240, 242
phosphorus-related, 163, 178, 180, 188
populations with high energy expenditures, 188
renal impairment, 247
vitamin D and, 255, 265, 275, 285
Sprue, 255
Steroid hormone metabolism, 39
Sunlight/sun exposure, and vitamin D, 45, 50, 250, 252, 253-254, 255-256, 260, 262-276, 284, 285, 286
Supplements, dietary
bioavailability of nutrients, 22, 62, 74
calcium, 45-46, 74, 77-80, 82, 86, 89, 97-98, 102, 110, 112, 114, 116, 120-121, 123, 126, 130-131, 134, 135, 137, 138, 143, 213, 318, 324
data sources on intakes, 45-46
gender differences in use, 46, 82, 142
magnesium, 45-46, 195, 196, 199, 201, 205, 206-207, 219, 235-237, 238, 243, 244, 246, 247-248
menopausal status and, 77-80, 86
pregnancy and, 235-237
vitamin D, 45-46, 255, 257, 262, 264, 267, 268, 271-272, 274-277, 281-283, 286, 318
Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition and Health, 40
T
Tea, fluoride in, 293-294, 300
Thyrotoxicosis, 278
Toddlers, ages 1 through 3 years, 33, 46.
See also Children
AIs, 267-268
bone formation, 284-285
calcium, 96-98
indicators used to set AIs, 266-267
indicators used to set EARs, 164-166, 210-212
magnesium, 210-212, 213, 216, 246
ULs, 141-142, 187, 246, 284-285, 308-309
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs), 1, 17, 32.
See also UL modeling
calcium, 13, 20, 68, 134-143, 318
defined, 4, 6, 24, 26, 51-52, 55, 70, 186, 315
derivation of, 68-69, 246, 282-283, 284, 310-311
magnesium, 13, 20, 68, 242-248, 317, 318-319
phosphorus, 13, 20, 68, 180-189, 318
selection of, 68
supplement use and, 4-5, 26, 46
vitamin D, 13, 20, 68, 277-286, 318
Tolerance tests, magnesium, 203, 206-207, 231-233, 234-235
Toothpastes, 291, 295-296, 300
Toxicity, mechanisms of action, 64
Trace elements in Human Nutrition and Health, 22, 25 n.2, 52, 319
Twins/multiple births, 178
U
UL modeling.
See also Dose-response assessment;
Risk assessment models
calcium, 134-143
critical endpoint, 66, 137-138, 140, 244-245, 310
data selection, 65-66, 137-138, 244
dose-response assessment, 55, 57, 65-69, 137-143, 244-247, 281-285, 308-311
exposure assessment, 55, 57-58, 143, 188-189, 247-248, 285-286, 311-312
fluoride, 306-312
hazard identification, 55, 57, 62-64, 69, 134-137, 180-186, 242-244, 277-281, 306-308
magnesium, 242-248
NOAEL or LOAEL, 47, 66, 69, 137-138, 140, 244-245, 308-309
phosphorus, 180-189
uncertainty assessment, 66, 140, 245, 317
vitamin D, 278-286
Uncertainties
in AIs, 317
approaches for dealing with, 383-386
for calcium, 68, 91, 109, 110-111
dose-response assessment, 66-68, 140, 187, 245, 282, 284
for fluoride, 68
inferences from experimental animal studies, 54, 57, 62-63, 66-67
options for dealing with, 383-386
in risk assessment, 54, 57, 58, 66, 383-386
for vitamin D, 68, 281, 282, 284
Uncertainty Factor (UF), 57, 58, 66-68, 70, 140, 282, 309, 310
U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, 1
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1, 42, 43, 81, 379
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2, 43
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 385
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 1, 154, 196, 304, 379
V
Vegetarian diets, 80-81, 267, 270
Vitamin A, 139
Vitamin C, 38
Vitamin D.
See also 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D;
25-Hydroxyvitamin D
absorption, 253-255
adolescents, 262, 268-269, 276, 277, 284-285, 286
adults, 257, 259, 262, 269-272, 276, 277
AIs, 8, 14, 18, 27, 50, 261-263, 264-265, 266, 267-268, 269, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277
blood and urinary parameters, 279
and bone fracture, 8, 27, 50, 116, 260, 273, 274
and bone mass, 259, 263-264, 271-272, 278
and bone metabolism, 254, 257-258, 284-285
and bone mineral content, 260, 266
and bone mineral density, 14, 260, 261, 264, 271-272, 274
calcium and, 14, 27, 38, 39, 116, 250-253, 254, 255, 258-263, 264, 265, 273, 274, 275, 278, 281-282, 285, 286, 287
and cancer, 258
cardiovascular effects, 281
children, 16, 40-41, 257-258, 259, 260, 262-263, 266-268, 284-285
critical endpoints, 68, 281-282, 283-284
deficiency, 8, 27, 50, 253, 254, 257-258, 259, 263-264, 267, 271
dose-response assessment, 68, 281-285
estimating requirements for, 259-263
excretion, 253-255
exposure assessment, 285-286
factors affecting requirements, 255
food sources, 256-257, 261-262, 268, 269, 270, 271, 283, 284, 285-286
function, 250-253
gender differences, 43-45, 256, 257, 269, 271, 272, 274
geographic location and, 14, 259, 264-267, 269-270, 271, 273, 274, 281, 284, 286
and granulomatous diseases, 255, 285
hazard identification, 277-281
in human milk, 263, 262, 264, 265-266, 276-277
and hypercalcemia, 278, 280, 281-283, 284, 285
and hyperparathyroidism, 258, 270, 273, 274, 278, 280
indicators of nutrient adequacy, 18, 27, 50, 259-261, 263-264, 265-267, 268, 269-270, 271-272, 273-274, 275-277
infants, 68, 259, 260, 262-266, 269-270, 275, 277, 283-284
intakes, 14, 27, 43-46, 50, 253, 255, 256, 257, 261-262, 267-268, 275, 285-286, 318
interaction with other nutrients, 192, 193, 197
intoxication, 184-185, 186, 256, 277-287
lactation and, 12, 18, 276-277, 285
life-stage group and, 18, 43-45, 263-277
and linear growth, 263-264, 283
malabsorption disorders, 255
menopausal status and, 269, 272
and metabolic bone disease, 259
metabolism, 250-255
NOAEL/LOAELs, 281-282, 283-284
older adults, 116, 255, 273-274, 287
and osteomalacia, 8, 50, 258, 269, 274
and osteopenia, 275
and osteoporosis, 14, 27, 274, 280
and parathyroid hormone, 252, 253, 254, 258, 259-260, 262, 264, 266, 269, 272, 274, 287
phosphorus and, 38, 184-185, 186, 250, 253, 254, 258, 260, 265
pregnancy and, 12, 18, 117, 263, 275-276, 285
race/ethnicity and, 260, 263, 269-270
receptor polymorphisms, 14
and renal disease, 280
research recommendations, 14, 286-287
and rickets, 8, 50, 254, 257-258, 259, 260, 263, 264-265, 277
risk characterization, 286
serum, 260
and skeletal health, 257-258, 260-261, 262-264
special considerations, 255, 265, 275, 285
sun exposure and, 45, 50, 250, 252, 253-254, 255-256, 260, 262-276, 284, 285, 286
sunscreen and, 14, 256, 261, 271, 286
supplements, 45-46, 255, 257, 262, 264, 267, 268, 271-272, 274-277, 281-283, 286, 318
uncertainty and uncertainty factors, 68, 281, 282, 284
Vitamin E, 139
W
Water.
See Drinking water
Weight.
See Reference weights and heights
Weight-bearing practices, 42, 68
Women.
See also Gender differences;
Lactation;
Menopausal status;
Pregnancy
amenorrheic, 76
balance studies, 220, 221, 225, 226
calcium, 72, 75, 109-110, 111-114, 135, 143
fluoride, 301-306
indicators used to set AIs, 111-114
indicators used to set EARs, 221, 226
intakes of nutrients, 43-45
magnesium, 30, 220, 222-223, 225, 227, 230-231, 233
phosphorus, 30, 31, 155, 316, 321, 322-323
vitamin D, 43-45, 256, 272, 273
World Health Organization, 22, 52, 83, 319, 322
Y
Young adults.
See Adults, 19 through 30 years
Z
Zinc, 38, 59, 137, 140, 141, 142, 171, 180-181, 189, 214
Zinc oxide, 53