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Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation (1994)

Chapter: PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY

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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT FOR INDUSTRIAL ENERGY PRODUCTION DELIVERY AND CONSUMPTION IN POLAND

Jerzy Michna

Polish Academy of Sciences

Institute of Environmental Engineering

Energy Consumption Division

Ruda Slaska, Poland

Roman Ney

Polish Academy of Sciences

Minerals and Energy Economy Research Centre

Krakow, Poland

ABSTRACT

This paper addresses the suitability of institutional arrangements for development and implementation of Polish energy policy. Historical arrangements and current directions are presented concerning the production and delivery of coal, synthetic gas, natural gas, coke-oven gas, crude oil and derivatives, electricity, and thermal energy. Proposals are presented for new institutional arrangements in the transition to a market economy to implement energy and environmental policies.

1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT FOR POLISH ENERGY POLICY

In centrally planned economies, economic efficiency was not the primary criterion in the valuation of economy activities. Thus, institutional support for development of the energy economy was based first of all on political factors. Consequently, consideration of energy production and delivery took precedence over matters related to energy consumption, and the institutions dealing with production and delivery occupied a higher position in the organizational hierarchy.

The energy crisis of 1973 brought about new research on complex energy problems that included consideration of energy conservation activities and substitution of energy carriers. At this time, research activities aimed at improving the efficiency of the whole energy economy including energy supply policy, energy conservation policy, and environmental policy. By 1984, these activities had elevated energy conservation problems to a level of

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

importance comparable to energy production and delivery problems. However, reorganization of government research programs in 1985 resulted in decreased emphasis on energy efficiency.

During most years since the second world war until the reorganization in 1985, energy production and delivery were directed by the Coal, Energy, and Chemistry ministries. Early in the 1970s, the Coal and Energy ministries were merged (Fig. 1). The ministries contained offices working with energy problems in each sector: iron and steel, metal industry, chemistry, consumer goods, transportation, residential buildings, and agriculture.

Energy consumption problems were coordinated at first by a Department for Inspection in the Energy Ministry, and later, in the beginning of the 1960s, by a special section of this Ministry (PiGPE) called the State Inspection of the Fuel and Energy Economy. Also during the 1960s, an office for distribution of coal was established in the Coal Mining Ministry called the Central Office for Selling Coal (Centrala Zbytu Wegla), and a strategic energy planning office was created in the State Planning Commission (KPpRM).

After the energy crisis of 1973, the State Inspection of Fuel and Energy Economy was expanded in scope, renamed the Chief Energy Economy Inspection (GIGE), and subordinated to the Ministry of Material Economy. Also, the Polish Academy of Sciences created a Committee for Energy Problems (KPE-PAN) to perform research on Polish energy economy efficiency. Then, in 1984, after the passage of a new energy economy bill by the Polish parliament, the scope of the GIGE was reduced when it became the Energy Conservation Department within the Ministry of Materials and Fuels. In 1987, the Industry Ministry was created, and energy problems were handled by the Energy Economy Department (Departament Gospodarki Energetycznej) which was quite limited in scope.

Presently, the fundamental aim of the Polish government is to achieve the free market economy. Realization of this goal has brought about changes in the Ministry of Industry that eliminated many small offices and created a Coal Agency (Agencja Wegla) and a Company of Power Networks (Spolka Sieci Elektrycznych). Also, the State Planning Commission (KPpRM) has been replaced by the Central Office for Planning (CUP), in which some teams from the energy department have been included in the Department of Sector Studies and Infrastructure. The activities formerly handled by the GIGE are now managed by the Council for Energy Economy (RGE) within the Ministry of Industry. The distribution and delivery of energy carriers are realized by special regional Energy Inspection Offices (OIGE). Their duties are: inspection of energy consumption methods in industry, analysis of energy consumption parameters, and advice on development projects on energy consumption in industry.

2. STRUCTURE OF CURRENT INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT FOR ENERGY POLICY

The primary institution in the Polish government for creating and implementing energy policy is the Ministry of Industry through the Energy Economy Department. Within this department are 40 persons divided among 6 teams (Fig. 2). Since the beginning of the new democratic government in 1989, the Department has developed a very liberal market-based

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

energy policy which determines the scope of government regulation of the energy economy during the present transition period.

Unfortunately, the policies emerging from the Ministry of Industry emphasize the development of energy production and delivery, as in the past, and opportunities for energy conservation are being missed. Actually, more support for such activities is coming from other Ministries, especially the Ministry of the Environment, the Central Planning Office, and the Ministry of Building. The Central Planning Office has organized a program for Rational Energy Policy, which aims at providing a basis for optimization of decision making processes in the energy economy during the transition period. The Ministry for Environmental Protection (Fig. 4) has organized the Polish Foundation for Energy Efficiency. The Foundation will help to develop energy conservation policy and promote the use of energy efficient new technologies. (See another paper in these proceedings: “Strategies for Industrial Energy Efficiency and Conservation Policy,” by Slawomir Pasierb, for more on the Foundation.)

Another initiative, sponsored by a group of power engineers in industry and the Polish Academy of Sciences, involves the organization of the Polish Association for Energy Economics (St.RGE), which will be a member of the International Association for Energy Economics. One commission of the Association will prepare alternative solutions for energy conservation policy.

3. FUTURE CHALLENGES

Poland needs to organize new institutional support for energy conservation activities during the transition period from a centrally planned economy to a market economy (Fig. 5). An ongoing debate involves whether the government should continue to house energy programs within the Ministry of Industry or else organize a new institution independent of the Ministry. In either case, additional obstacles are presented by the shortage of competent staff, which is a result of the previously mentioned decreases during the 1980s in government and scientific institution employment of professionals working on energy conservation policy problems.

The developing trends of the whole Polish economy will have much influence on the organization of a central institution for energy conservation policy. Also, future development of Poland's environmental policy will affect institutional developments. Presently, these connections are not quite clear.

Along with questions about the organization of central institutions, there are important concerns about the organization of regional support for energy and environmental problems. The currently operating regional inspection teams were created during the centrally planned economy in Poland, and therefore their scopes are limited. In the region of Silesia, an Energy Conservation Agency has been organized to address a great range of environmental protection and energy conservation problems in this province. This Agency is willing to collaborate with the United States, Germany, and France on a complex energy conservation and environmental

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

protection project for Upper Silesia. We expect that other provinces will organize similar institutions, and therefore the work for Upper Silesia can serve as a model for institutional development throughout Poland.

Another debate involves the application of scientific research to methods for optimal decision making on energy policy, energy conservation policy, and environment protection policy. Our experiences during the first two years of transition have identified a shortage of diagnostic methods for formulating optimal policies. We are also concerned that the experiences of developed countries are only partially adaptable to our situation. Nevertheless, we expect that one of the most important components in the efficient development of a Polish energy economy will be collaboration with developed countries.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Fig. 1 Government Support for Energy Conservation during the Central Planned Economy

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Fig. 2 Organization of Actual State Support for Energy Economy

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 3

Figure 3 Organization of Energy Economy Activities in the Central Planning Office

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Fig. 4 Institutional Support on Energy Conservation in Ministry of Enironment Protection

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

STRATEGIES FOR INDUSTRIAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY: THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AT STATE, REGIONAL, AND LOCAL LEVELS

Slawomir Pasierb

The Polish Foundation for Energy Efficiency

Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT

The main task for the Polish government in transition is to create and implement a stabilization program aimed at:

  • reduction of the fiscal deficit,

  • monetary and credit restraints,

  • achieving a positive real interest rate,

  • price liberation,

  • foreign trade liberalization, and

  • foreign exchange liberalization.

This report discusses the role of the government in creating energy efficiency policy at various levels. It presents key recommendations regarding current energy efficiency initiatives.

1. INTRODUCTION - POLAND'S ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION

Two years ago the Polish economy was in disarray. Upon assuming power in September 1989, the new government immediately undertook the task of restructuring the economy. The more urgent tasks were to control inflation, strengthen domestic currency, remove price distortions and eliminate monopolies.

The stabilization program, launched on January 1, 1990, aimed at:

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
  • reduction of the fiscal deficit,

  • monetary and credit restraints,

  • achieving a positive real interest rate,

  • reduction of subsidies,

  • price liberation,

  • foreign trade liberalization, and

  • foreign exchange liberalization.

The program has had significant results based on data now available from 1990. Inflation subsided substantially. Price increases were reduced from a monthly rate of 78.6% in January 1990 to a more acceptable monthly level of 1.8% in August of that year. Towards the end of 1990, monthly inflation rose to 5-6%, but it was mainly due to the Persian Gulf crisis. The state budget was balanced, and real interest rates became positive. The black market for foreign exchange was totally eliminated. Revenues from exports to Western countries exceeded $12 billion (US). This represents an increase of 48% in comparison to 1989. The trade surplus was about $3 billion (US), giving strength and stability to Polish currency. Private sector output was up by 8 percent in 1990 in spite of a recession, and exports tripled.

On the negative side, real wages fell 35% and production dropped sharply (20-30%). The GDP declined in 1990 by about 17% and unemployment reached a level of 1-2 million (about 7-8% of the labor force).

2. GOVERNMENT ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICY
Policy Goals

The government's current policy for reforming the energy sector consists of the following elements:

  • market pricing of energy supplies,

  • energy supply sector restructuring,

  • decontrol of hard coal production,

  • privatization of transmission and distribution networks for electricity, gas, and heat supply enterprises and changing the way that they are regulated, and

  • privatization of energy suppliers.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

The Ministry of Industry and Trade has identified key actions for implementing these strategies listed below.

Price reform and decontrol, including:

  • near-term decontrol of hard coal

  • near-term price parity for household and industrial consumers of natural gas and electricity

  • near-term natural gas price parity with Western Europe for industrial consumers

  • near-term decontrol of oil and gas development

  • long-term price parity for household and industrial consumers of network heat

  • long-term semi-decontrol of network deliveries of electricity, natural gas, and heat

Elimination of energy subsidies, including:

  • budget subsidies for heat and electricity producers

  • lower prices for household gas, electric, and heat services

Sector restructuring, including:

  • commercialization and eventual privatization of coal mines

  • creation of an electric transmission grid company

  • creation of electric generation companies, which will bid to supply power to the grid

  • commercialization of electric power distributors

  • commercialization of gas distributors

  • commercialization of heat distributors

  • unification and commercialization of lignite mines and mine-mouth lignite power plants

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Regulatory reform, including:

  • antimonopoly regulation of electric and gas transmission

  • encouraging bidding for electric power supplies

These specific initiatives are under way at the Ministry of Industry and are very important for restructuring of the energy sector and energy efficiency. However, demand-side measures have been seriously neglected. One reason for this imbalance is the belief that pricing policies and market mechanisms are adequate to address Poland's need to become more efficient. Also important is the influence of government decision makers and aid agencies that traditionally emphasize supply-side measures. There is also a lack of qualified staff in government ministries to address demand-side issues.

Implementation of Policies

Energy efficiency does not happen on its own. The role of the government is to take initiatives. These include:

  • removal of market barriers,

  • specific programs including,

  • information programs,

  • energy management,

  • financial incentives,

  • regulations and standards,

  • targeting and monitoring,

  • research, development, and demonstration,

  • government leadership by example, and

  • involvement of utilities and other non-government organizations.

3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Polish Foundation for Energy Efficiency, established in 1990, has developed seven energy “demand-side” initiatives. This joint effort of Polish and American experts was performed under contract to the new Ministry of Industry & Trade. The objective of the task

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

was to specify the first steps of a new energy policy for Poland. These initiatives are listed below.

  • Providing incentives for home energy savings by assisting residential district heating consumers to save energy and money in some 5.3 million homes supplied with heat and hot water by utilities. This program will help the government reduce district heating subsidies totaling 18 trillion Zloty per year ($1.7 billion).

  • Obtaining new loans for efficiency investments by creating a fund for energy efficiency investments to be drawn on by utilities for energy savings measures in the residential, industrial, and public buildings sectors. Technical assistance should be provided to promote the use of these funds, and to enable consumers to use them.

  • Labeling appliances for energy cost in order to cut electricity use by Polish refrigerators by 50%, reduce Polish lighting equipment electricity use by 50%, and save 30% of the overall energy used in existing buildings by the year 2005.

  • Helping schools cut energy costs by providing emergency energy assistance to schools and municipalities.

  • Taxing motor fuels to support consumer programs by imposing a 5% tax on liquid fuels to reduce future national oil use by 2-4%, and to raise $125 million per year for use in energy efficiency and consumer protection efforts.

  • Capturing methane leaks from coal mines beginning with cost-sharing demonstration projects utilizing coal-bed methane as a fuel. The projects should demonstrate to the private sector that producing coal-bed methane for local markets can be profitable, and should stimulate more rapid development of a national energy resource which can reduce imports, reduce energy-related pollution, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and save money.

  • Establishment of a National Utility Agency to promote least-cost solutions to create a Utility Least-Cost Program for the Polish electric and heat industry. The agency will be accountable to an appointed National Utility Council.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICY: RELATIONSHIPS AMONG GOVERNMENT, UNIVERSITIES, PRIVATE INDUSTRY, AND CONSUMERS IN POLAND

Edward Radwanski

Warsaw University of Technology

Warsaw, Poland

ABSTRACT

Industrial energy efficiency policy became a concern of government policy makers in Poland more than 3 0 years ago when the first Energy Management Act was enacted. This act established a Head Inspection Office on Energy Management with regional agencies. Its duties were limited to distribution of fuels, regulation of energy carriers (according to a Central National Plan), and research on energy use by sectors of the economy and, at the regional level, by large industrial energy users. The participation of universities in research projects on energy efficiency improvements in industry was controlled by the Office for Technical Progress and Science. The universities also participated in research projects financed by Ministry of Higher Education or by industrial enterprises.

This paper contains an overview of industrial energy efficiency policy including: government activities on energy policy, specific government programs, sectoral industry programs, issues relating to program financing, implementation of energy policies, the role of universities and other research centers, and requirements for application of research results in industry. The paper concludes with proposals for changes in law, in energy policy and its implementation, organization of research and other activities to improve the effectiveness of energy efficiency policy in Poland.

1. INTRODUCTION

The duties of the Polish government in relation to the national economy are well established. At least four areas of activity can be singled out:

  • execution of laws connected with legislative initiatives,

  • responsibility for the country's infrastructure: road networks, communication, energy supply and its utilization,

  • responsibility for privatization of vast amounts of government-owned property in the public interest, and

  • direct or indirect intervention in the economic decisions made by a wide range of entities.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Industrial energy efficiency policy considers two basic factors: energy consumption per unit of GNP (Gross National Product), and environmental protection. The universities' basic responsibilities are:

  • higher education,

  • development of science and technology, and

  • research activities including the needs of industry and consumers.

In the light of these responsibilities, the universities should participate actively in the improvement of industrial energy efficiency.

Presently, private industry in Poland has only a small share in GNP. Thus, until the time of widespread privatization of public industry, it will have only minor influence on the results of governmental energy policy. On the other hand, energy policy developments will effect the privatization process. Access to energy supplies by private consumers is determined by the monopolized energy suppliers (electricity, natural gas, and district heating) and by government, which sets energy prices.

2. ENERGY POLICY AND INDUSTRIAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICY

Industrial energy efficiency policy became a concern of government policy makers in Poland more than 30 years ago when the first Energy Management Act was enacted and the Head Inspection Office on Energy Management was set up. However, this agency's authority was subservient to the Ministry of Mining and Energetics and the Central Planning Commission.

Presently, legislators are developing new energy policy to consider energy management problems for the conditions of an economy in transition to the free market, accounting for the monopoly status of energy suppliers. One proposal calls for the creation of a central institution to develop energy policy and to oversee the development of the country 's energy system, including modern energy management. This institution should be independent of the energy carriers, generating industries, and distributors and should act in the public interest. The primary tasks of this institution should be:

  • setting targets for the creation of a free energy market,

  • elaboration of guidelines for privatization of the energy industry and energy distribution enterprises,

  • preparation of principles for determination of energy prices in an economy in transition,

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
  • development of a research program necessary for the creation of energy policy and for development of energy technology,

  • creation of special energy efficiency agencies,

  • creation of energy policies for various energy sectors and energy users (industry, households, transport, agriculture, etc.),

  • development of procedures for estimating the effectiveness of energy policy and for assuring its continuous improvement, and

  • determination of appropriate governmental intervention in energy management realized by energy producers and energy users.

The responsibilities of the central energy institution should be specified by the Prime Minister or by the Ministry of Industry. Furthermore, new legislation should determine the duties and range of activities of the Ministry of Industry regarding operative decisions in energy management and implementation of energy policies. Following are several considerations involved in the creation of energy efficiency policy.

  • The energy sector is in the process of reforming and restructuring.

  • The energy suppliers and transmission and distribution networks will be privatized and regulations will be changed.

  • Market pricing of energy will be introduced.

  • Energy price parity for households and industrial consumers will occur in the long term.

  • Network deliveries of electricity, natural gas, and heat will be partially decontrolled in the long term.

  • Subsidies for energy producers will be eliminated.

  • Environmental protection through energy demand reduction and energy efficiency improvement will occur.

The above mentioned principles and strategies will promote energy efficiency on both the supply and demand sides of the market equation. However, more can be said about the demand side. Necessary demand side policies and key actions for improvement of energy efficiency include:

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
  • a competitive utility program for energy efficiency,

  • an energy efficiency investment fund,

  • labeling of energy devices for consumer information,

  • a fuel tax for environmental protection,

  • energy assistance for urban and region energy management, including the schools,

  • provision for energy audit involving:

    • gathering of data,

    • examining the production units of various energy carriers,

    • taking measurements necessary for a comprehensive material and energy balance statement,

    • evaluating potential energy and costs savings,

    • formulating energy savings proposals (including investment costs and energy savings),

  • extension services to promote use of the above mentioned energy efficiency fund,

  • creation of an interim utility tariff schedule favoring energy efficiency investment, coupled with incentives for utility companies to procure energy efficiency equipment, and

  • legislation to impose some percent energy tax on liquid fuels, with authority to transfer the revenues to an energy efficiency fund.

Progress on the above problems and targets can be accomplished in collaboration with universities and research centers.

3. UNIVERSITIES AND RESEARCH CENTERS

During the last two years the relationship between government and universities has changed, particularly in the area of scientific research. These changes involve more participation of universities in the development of science and technology.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Eighteen state universities are involved directly in energy education. The categories of instruction include: thermal and electrical technologies, including utilization, management, and control; house and district heating; air conditioning and ventilation systems; and industrial energetics.

Fourteen universities in Poland include postgraduate studies (known as graduate studies in the U.S.) related to energy. There are more than seventy different programs related to industrial energetics, and energy policy and management.

The fields of doctoral studies are determined by the interests of candidates for the doctoral degree and professors. Generally these studies concern scientific, theoretical, and experimental research. However, remarkably few doctoral dissertations concern practical applications for the improvement of energy efficiency, energy management, or policy. Expertise is particularly lacking in the areas of:

  • utilization of energy,

  • energy measurements,

  • automatic control,

  • energy auditing,

  • energy management,

  • energy economy,

  • energy policy,

  • environmental protection through increased energy efficiency,

  • development of energy-efficient technologies, and

  • planning of national and regional energy systems.

Some areas of energy education require development, integration, and evolution in response to our changing political and economic conditions:

  • methods for developing and establishing comprehensive energy management,

  • modern energy auditing,

  • energy demand forecasting,

  • energy system planning using least-cost methods,

  • energy management control systems,

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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  • improving efficiency of energy-using equipment,

  • energy saving in home heating,

  • clean energy technologies,

  • financing problems of energy efficiency investments, and

  • creation of energy policies directed to various energy consumers.

4. CURRENT DIFFICULTIES DURING THE ECONOMIC TRANSITION

University research activities are presently regressing because of fundamental changes in governmental support and little interest among industries (state-owned and private), municipal authorities, and other energy consumers. The government has terminated all central developmental research programs. The Scientific Research Committee introduced a new organizational and financing system for research that eliminated established, effective, and coherent research projects in energetics.

A new system of support for projects by individual investigators is now being implemented. These projects are not subordinated to a strategic program. Such projects are of course useful, but they do not solve the problems necessary for supporting decisions related to strategic goals and directed towards improving energy efficiency for reducing energy consumption per unit of GNP. The termination of governmental strategic central research programs can cause:

  • breaking apart of established research teams, most of them created as part of previous central energy research programs,

  • reduction of effectiveness of research achievements, and

  • fewer opportunities for developing energy research aimed at achieving strategic goals during the current economic transition.

In conclusion, the field of energetics is one for which the government has the responsibility to organize and finance research activities aimed at strategic goals. University energy research activities supported by the government are an essential component of such research.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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ENERGY ECONOMIES—ROLE OF PRICES AND FEES IN POLAND

Franciszek Krawczynski

Central Planning Board

Warsaw, Poland

Jan Norwisz

Polish Academy of Sciences

Institute of Environmental Engineering

Energy Consumption Division

Ruda Slaska, Poland

ABSTRACT

Polish energy management is in a condition determined by factors that result from many years of a centrally planned economy:

  • structure of energy use based mainly on bituminous coal,

  • strong dependence on crude oil imports from the USSR,

  • intrinsic connections between various establishments of the energy sector, and

  • low energy prices, regulated at two levels: one for industry and another for individual consumers.

Energy prices were set to achieve certain policies and had little relationship to costs of production or the price of purchases on the world energy market. During last two years, as Poland attempts to change its economic system to a free market, prices have increased towards those of the world market level and are beginning to reflect the costs of their production, delivery, and distribution. The goal of recent changes is to establish proper pricing structures and levels so that funds can be secured for future development of the energy sector. New policies also aim to change the energy consumption structure and force end-users to decrease their energy consumption.

The analysis presented here involves primarily the energy suppliers ' point of view. Less attention in devoted to end-users' needs and opportunities to produce goods and services with less energy.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
1. THE ROLE OF PRICES DURING ECONOMIC TRANSITION

Prices are important factors influencing consumer behavior. Energy prices are especially important because energy is a part of every human activity. During the period of the centrally planned economy, Poland had a policy of low energy prices. Prices for fuels and energy were state controlled, and as a rule, there was no connection between prices and the cost of production. Prices were not a good basis for economic decisions both on the national and microeconomic levels. The transition from a centrally planned to a market economy requires that we adjust the Polish system of energy prices to world market prices. However, our ability to select the best route to a new economic system is limited by factors created during the past 40 years, including the structure of the Polish energy balance, petroleum fuels imported mainly from the USSR, and other relics of the previous economic system including state ownership of industry.

Prices play an important role in the energy market. The principal functions of energy prices are to cover costs of production, to provide a basis for substitution of fuels, and to distribute the benefits of energy use among energy producers and consumers. There are four main methods for determining energy prices: cost of production, comparison of the usefulness of different energy carriers, balancing supply and demand, and comparison of domestic prices to world market prices. In the past, the costs of production were estimated, but this information was used only to calculate the level at which energy was subsidized. Cheap energy was the “cornerstone” of policies for building a new industrial infrastructure in Poland. Administrative methods, rather than price, were used to control energy consumption.

The transition period from a centrally planned economy to a market economy in Poland is characterized by rapid price increases for all energy carriers. The high growth rate in energy prices implies increasing energy costs for industry and decreasing real values of monthly wages for the population. Although energy prices are still not high enough to cover the costs of production, transportation, and distribution, they are high enough to create great difficulties for many manufacturers and individual consumers struggling to pay their bills.

2. RESTRUCTURING THE ENERGY SECTOR

The deep restructuring of all branches of the energy sector has eliminated previously existing organizational ties between the central planning board and energy producers and suppliers. Simultaneously there remain in existence previous arrangements for energy delivery and use that continue to support the monopoly position of energy suppliers.

The existing arrangement of energy sector ownership, with the state having the contradictory roles of owner of industry and energy carriers and regulator of methods of energy use, makes it difficult to introduce the most effective system of energy prices. In practice, this system leads to neglecting the interests of energy users in favor of energy security for the whole national economy. There is a need for the formulation of a new Polish

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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energy policy and for setting priorities for developing particular branches in the energy sector. These priorities must take into account the interests of energy end-users in industry and agriculture as well as individual consumers with the goal of optimizing the development of the entire Polish national economy. We believe that energy pricing policy is the best tool for implementation of improved methods for demand side management and energy conservation.

The existing system of energy prices and tariffs must be changed, especially for electricity, gas, and district heating, so as to stimulate development of energy conservation enterprises and to make it possible for end-users to influence the behavior of energy suppliers in ways that improve the quality and reliability of delivery. Measurement systems for all energy carriers must be improved and increased in number so that the relationship between the quantity of energy used and energy bills will be apparent.

3. CONCLUSIONS

Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9, Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 15, which follow, summarize the data discussed in this paper.

The transformation of the Polish economy from a centrally planned to a market economy requires that domestic prices for energy carriers be adjusted to the real costs of their production or purchase. Our ability to choose the best way to change from the previous system of cheap energy to world market prices is limited presently by the poor state of the Polish economy. Deep restructuring of the energy sector provides great opportunities for specific projects in the energy sector.

Establishing proper energy prices is important for implementation of a new national economic policy. Analyses that have been performed in this domain mainly represent the energy producers' point of view. They are directed primarily at determining the level of energy subsidies. There is no lobby for energy end-users, and there are no analyses concerning how energy price increases influence industry and agriculture or the society's situation regarding future prosperity. The problem of setting prices and tariffs should be the subject of serious analyses which must produce verifiable results. The goal is an energy price system similar to that existing in developed countries, but the way it is achieved must be adapted to present Polish limitations, including the structure of industry and agriculture and the level of national income per capita. These goals will not be achieved by simply eliminating existing subsidies, for example to the coal industry or district heating suppliers.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Figure 1

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 2

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 3

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 4

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 5

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 6

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 7

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 8

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 9

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 10

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 11

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 12

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 13

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 14

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 15

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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ENERGY FOR PEOPLE: REALISTIC PROSPECTS FOR DRAMATIC INCREASES IN ENERGY EFFICIENCY

David B. Goldstein

Natural Resources Defense Council

San Francisco, California USA

1. INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY FOR PEOPLE

As Poland's economy modernizes and grows, the demand for energy services for people is likely to rise quickly, as it has in other countries, including the United States. Demand for energy services could be accompanied by an increase in energy demand, as it was in the United States before 1973, or could be achieved with absolute reductions in energy consumption, as is likely to be the case in California and perhaps the rest of the U.S. for the next twenty years.

Since the early part of the century, the fraction of U.S. energy demand from the industrial sector has steadily shrunk, while the fraction of energy devoted to buildings, appliances, and vehicles has increased. For the last fifteen years, this trend has continued despite improvements in equipment energy efficiency in the people-related sectors.

The rising demand for energy services that might confront Poland in the near future is illustrated in Figure 1. This figure shows a 6.1% annual increase in energy usage for a single refrigerator, which led to a 9.5% annual increase in total U.S. refrigerator energy usage from World War II to 1973. Had this curve been extrapolated to 1995, as virtually all American utilities were doing in the mid-1970s, it would have implied the need for 107,000 MW nationally to power refrigerators -- equivalent to the installed capacity of the entire U.S. nuclear program.

2. THE POTENTIAL FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY

In the case study of refrigerators presented above, California set efficiency standards for refrigerators in 1976. Successive modifications of the standards required reductions in energy consumption in 1979, 1987, 1990, and 1993. The result, as illustrated in Figure 2, is a two-thirds reduction in energy consumption per unit between 1972 and 1993, resulting in a stabilization of energy use for refrigerators at the mid-1970s level of 21,000 MW. The turnover of refrigerators, coupled with even higher efficiencies that are expected in the mid-1990s, will lead to significant absolute declines in energy consumption for this end use, despite population growth and continued increases in refrigerator size and features.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Similar gains in efficiency have been achieved, and similar declines in total energy use are achievable, in virtually every other people-related end use sector. Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5 illustrate alternative energy futures for the United States that allow a growing economy to be served with declining energy consumption in each of the three major people-related sectors --residential, commercial, and personal transportation -- at a net savings of up to $2.4 trillion for the U.S. economy as a whole. Savings from these sectors, compared with a reference case that already includes price-driven efficiency improvements and those achieved by policies already in effect, will reach 23 × 1018 J/yr by the year 2030. Similar types of analyses can be done for any major country or region, and current evidence suggests similar results will follow: that economic growth will be better served by stable or declining energy consumption than by continued growth in energy.

3. PRACTICAL PROSPECTS FOR ACHIEVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY POTENTIALS

It is well known that the United States economy reduced its energy intensity by 25% over the period 1973-1988. This was accomplished through a relatively limited number of national energy policies applied with varying levels of commitment and coupled with some modest price response.

States or regions that made consistent efforts to improve energy efficiency did substantially better than the national average. Figure 6 illustrates the comparison between California and the rest of the nation: California was able to reduce its energy intensity 32% compared to the national 25% over the same fifteen-year period. This is more remarkable of an achievement because transportation energy—which is 40% of the state total—is largely beyond the control of California. State efforts to regulate the fuel efficiency of motor vehicles are preempted by federal law in the United States. Similarly, most of the decisions on funding railway expansion versus new highways (see Section 4.1. below) are made at the federal level.

Figure 7 and Figure 8 focus on those areas where states could exercise independent policy action. As seen in Figure 7, the energy intensity of California's building sector declined 28% from 1978 to 1988, compared to only 12% for the rest of the nation. The “rest of the nation” includes other states that took independent action to improve the efficiency of their buildings, so a comparison between California and regions affected only by national energy policy would likely show an even larger difference. As illustrated in Figure 8, electricity consumption per capita in California declined steadily over the period of record, in contrast with the United States as a whole, where electricity consumption per capita grew at 1.5% per year. The difference, almost 2% per year of differential electricity efficiency improvement, is quite significant. It is likely to increase in the future, as California implements new policies to further exploit its efficiency resources. These results show that the theories and projections described in Section 2 above can be translated into practice in a real world setting.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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4. POLICY DIRECTIONS THAT CAN PRODUCE THE MOST SAVINGS
Building, Appliance, and Vehicle Efficiency Standards

The primary area of difference between California and the rest of the nation was in that state's standards for buildings and appliances. California estimates that these standards will save 14,000 MW by the year 2009, compared with the total electric demand today of about 40,000 MW.

Building, appliance, and vehicle standards can be set at the regional or national level. The level of efficiency required generally has been based on economic analysis. Such standards have been found to be enforceable with very high effectiveness, provided that intelligent efforts at enforcement are made.

Graduated Incentives for Efficiency

Incentives can supplement standards in several ways. Utility programs currently in existence in California and elsewhere provide cash rebates to customers who increase energy efficiency by at least 5-10% compared to the minimum required levels. Rebate levels increase rapidly as the savings increase. These programs appear to be achieving remarkable success. Graduated fees on inefficient vehicles coupled with rebates on efficient cars are predicted to create for the first time a market in energy efficiency in vehicles.

The Development of Appropriate Physical and Institutional Infrastructure
TRANSPORTATION SECTOR

Recent research suggests that the amount of vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) per capita is highly dependent on the infrastructure of urban development and transportation facilities. As illustrated in Figure 9, a number of studies of different cities around the world or different districts within a city show that a doubling in density of residential development reduces total VKT by 25%-30%. Increases in mass transit usage by one passenger kilometer appear to reduce overall VKT by 4 to 8 vehicle kilometers or more, by affecting land use patterns. Thus, national policies and economic incentives to encourage high density and mass transportation appear able to reduce energy consumption substantially at any given level of vehicle efficiency.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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UTILITY PROFIT INCENTIVES

Previous systems of regulation in the United States provided utilities a financial incentive to increase their sales of energy regardless of its social benefit. New utility regulatory policies adopted in New England, California, and other parts of the United States, provide that the utilities' least-cost resource plan is also its most profitable plan. These policies can change a utility's perspective on encouraging efficiency, bringing the utility industry financial power and personnel infrastructure to bear on improving efficiency. This is likely to have a dramatic effect in the future. Pacific Gas & Electric Company, America's largest investor-owned utility, is now projecting that 75% or more of its load growth over the next decade will be met by energy efficiency. The Southern California Edison Company and the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power have committed to 20% net reductions in CO2 emissions, despite projections of rapid population growth.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON ENERGY POLICY AND TECHNOLOGY

Different economic, social, and cultural conditions provide different points of leverage for the individual and corporate decisions that determine future energy consumption. Policy research for each country or region to determine what those points of leverage are and how policies can best encourage energy efficiency can make a substantial difference in how many efficiency-encouraging policies are adopted. There is also a good record of the United States of federal science/engineering research and development on energy efficiency leading to commercial technologies that have saved tens of thousands of megawatts.

ENERGY PRICING

Economists have made a strong case for the benefits of setting energy prices at their full marginal cost to society. This cost should include not only the market price, but also the value of energy-related externalities, such as air pollution and economic stability (e.g., the risks of oil-related price spikes or shortages). In Poland, as in most countries, the price of energy to the consumer falls significantly below the economically preferable level. Raising energy prices is an important component of a rational energy strategy. However, it is not the only component needed, or even the most important one. Market failures prevent even privately optimal choices on energy efficiency from being made. In some cases, measures with payback periods of less than a year are routinely overlooked by the market. Raising energy prices will not induce much efficiency if energy price is not the principal motivator to begin with. For most energy efficiency decisions, it is not. Thus, significant progress can be made through policies that induce societally optimal choices even when the prices are “incorrect.”

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Many analyses over the past 20 years of the costs and savings from new energy efficiency technologies have shown the potential for large improvements in energy efficiency, leading to predictions of stable or declining aggregate energy consumption. These studies will show that efficiency improvements are economically preferable to a “base case” of supply-side solutions to energy problems.

These efficiency potentials have been realized to a great extent in regions that have made conscious efforts to implement energy efficiency policies. Based on this experience of practical success, the most effective types of policies have been described.

The degree of success of these policies--both the ability to get them implemented, and their effectiveness once implemented--have been surprising to most energy analysts. The weight of opinion has generally been skeptical of the ability to replace supply-side investments with efficiency improvements on a macroeconomic scale. Recorded energy intensity reductions and reduced growth rates for overall energy have tended to be at or above the most optimistic end of the range of analysis projecting future trends and scenarios. Thus, it is plausible to project significant reductions in energy consumption for Poland based on the adoption of policies that have proven to be politically feasible and economically workable in other regions.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 3

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 4

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 5

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 6

Total Energy Use per GNP, California versus Rest of United States, 1973 to 1988. Sources: California Energy Commission Conservation Division for California energy use, U.S. Department of Energy Monthly Energy Review for U.S. energy use, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis for GNP and Personal Income data. Gross State Product is obtained by apportioning GNP by the fraction of personal income in the state.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 7

Energy Intensity of Building Sector, California versus Rest of Nation, 1978 to 1988. Sources: Borg and Briggs 1988 for California residential and commercial sector energy, U.S. Department of Energy Monthly Energy Review for U.S. Energy data, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis for GSP data.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×

Figure 1. Per Capita Electricity Use in California and the United States, 1978-1988. California's building and appliance standards and progressive energy policies have significantly reduced per capita electricity use over the past decade. In 1988 the average Californian used 210 kWh less than in 1978, while in 1988 the average American used 1220 kWh more than in 1978.

Source: Electricity data—Electric Power Annual, DOE/EIA-0348(87), and DOE/EIA-0348(82), U.S. Dept. of Energy, EnergyInformation Agency. Population data—Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1989 ed., U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of California.

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Figure A-3 Gasolipe use per capita versus urban density (1980)

(from Newman and Kenworthy, Cities and Auto Dependence)

Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
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Page 36
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 37
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 38
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 39
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 40
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 41
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 42
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 43
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 44
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 45
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 46
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 47
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 48
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 49
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 50
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 51
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 52
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 53
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 54
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 55
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 56
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 57
Suggested Citation:"PART I: ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION POLICY." National Research Council. 1994. Poland's Transition to a Market Economy: Prospects for Energy Efficiency and Conservation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9155.
×
Page 58
Next: PART II: EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY »
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