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Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1980)

Chapter: APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles

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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Page 285
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Page 294
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Page 295
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Page 296
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Page 297
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Page 298
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Page 299
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Page 300
Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Suggested Citation:"APPENDIX C Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles." National Research Council. 1980. Work, Jobs, and Occupations: A Critical Review of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/92.
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Annotated Bibliography of C Research Uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles JUNE PRICE Algra, Cecelia 1978 Meeting the challenge of a minimum reading graduation requirement. Journal of Reading 21(February):392-397. This article describes the development of a minimum reading requirement for high school graduation, with tests based on comprehension and validated within the working community. Occupations that are classified as being above the menial level in the DOT and that require some reading ability were studied to set a reading criterion for successful employment at the entry level. Anderson, Harry E., Jr., S. Larry Roush, and Jack E. McClary 1973 Relationships among ratings, production, efficiency, and the General Aptitude Test Battery scales in an industrial setting. Journal of Applied Psychology 58 (August):77-82. The GATB assesses worker aptitudes that relate directly to the DOT'S worker trait aptitude scales. In this study, relationships among GATB scales, job-related behavior (supervisor's ratings), and actual production and efficiency rates were examined for 76 coil winders in an overhead distribution transformer plant. In terms of published strategies applied in selection and placement activities, the use of the GATB was found to be deficient in several respects. The correlations between the GATB scales and the rating, production, and efficiency variables were found to be low to insignificant, including more than one third that were negative. These results indicate a need for further evaluation of the GATB in industrial settings. Ashley, William L. 1977 Occupational Information Resources: A Catalog of Data Bases and Classification Schemes. Information Series No. 104. Columbus: Ohio State University, Center for Vocational Education. This catalogue seeks to provide a basic reference to existing data and to stimulate creative thinking regarding new ways of looking at occupational mobility and transfer. It was designed and compiled for the primary purpose of assisting 262

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 263 researchers in the study of factors related to occupational mobility and skill transfer within and between occupations. The catalogue consists of two major parts: section 1 contains the abstracts of the occupational data bases, and section 2 contains the abstracts of occupational classification schemes. Included in section 2 are abstracts and descriptions of the various sections of the third edition DOT, Volumes 1 and 2, as well as the General Aptitude Test Battery. Baer, Max F., and Edward C. Roeber 1951 Occupational Information. Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc. Designed to serve as both a handbook for professional occupational guidance counselors and a textbook for the counselor in training, this book provides an overall picture of the country's occupational structure, reviews and provides a guide to occupational literature, and offers suggestions on the development of a library of occupational information. The authors describe the structure, content, and uses of the DOT and mention other systems of occupational classification that incorporate the DOT information. Barker, Donald G. 1969 Factor analysis of worker trait requirements. Journal of Employment Counseling 6(December): 162-168. Factor analysis of a sample of the 4,000 jobs listed in Estimates of Worker Trait Requirements for 4,000 Jobs as Defined in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, rated on 48 worker trait requirements, yielded nine interpretable orthogonal factors or patterns of employment qualifications: (1) technical, (2) clerical, (3) manipula^ five, (4) persuasive, (5) color discrimination (perhaps artistic), (6) administrative, (7) scientific, (8) social service, and (9) agility. Barker, Donald G. 1971 Color perception requirements of 4,000 jobs. Journal of Employment Counseling 8(March):26-30. Tabulation of the color discrimination requisites of a representative sample of jobs analyzed in the Estimates of Worker Trait Requirements for 4,000 Jobs revealed that the majority of jobs require little or no color perception aptitude. Only 2 percent of jobs require above average color discrimination. These occupations were listed by second and third edition DOT codes and titles for the use of counselors in the guidance of clients with defective color vision. Bemis, Stephen E., Robert L. Banner, Thomas F. Kearney, and Kathleen Goppold von Lobsdorf 1973 Development of a new Occupational Aptitude Pattern structure for the GATB. Vocational Guidance Quarterly 22(December):13~135. The General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) and the derived occupational aptitude patterns (OAP'S) are described. A lengthy analysis of the many Specific Aptitude Test Batteries that have been developed over the years produced 43 new tentative

264 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS OAP'S. The difficulties in relating the two systems are discussed. Final developmen- tal work and the resulting OAP structure will be presented in a subsequent article (see Bemis et al., 1974~. Bemis, Stephen E., Robert L. Bonner, Thomas F. Kearney, and Kathleen Goppold van Lobsdorf 1974 The new Occupational Aptitude Pattern structure for the GATB. Vocational Guidance Quarterly 22(March): 1 89- 1 94. The authors describe their attempts at developing a rationale for relating occupational aptitude patterns (OAP'S) to the worker trait groups of the third edition DOT, toward organizing occupations within an OAP and adding related occupations. The OAP structure resulting from this research consists of 62 three- aptitude, multiple-hurdle patterns that incorporate 1,215 occupations. Each OAP consists of the most significant aptitudes and the critical scores on these aptitudes established as minimum scores for groups of occupations having similar aptitude requirements. Berg, Ivar 1970 Education and Jobs: The Great Training Robbery. New York: Praeger Publishers. Berg's analysis investigates the relation between education and employment, specifically the role of educational attainment in generating job opportunities. Of special concern is employers' use of educational requirements in determining job requirements. Using the GED ratings from the 1956 and 1966 worker trait analyses, Berg first translated the seven-level GED code to a generally accepted years-of- schooling equivalent. The 1956 and 1966 GED scores were then used as gross estimates of the educational requirements of the jobs held for the two census years, 1950 and 1960. These estimates of job requirements with respect to education were then compared with the achieved education of the labor force. The two dates made it possible to include the effects of changes in estimated requirements as well as in the distribution of people among jobs. Berg suggests that since achievements appear to have exceeded requirements in most job categories, it cannot be argued that technological and related changes attending most jobs account for the pattern whereby better educated employees are required and made use of by managers. Bjorkquist, David C. 1970 Technical education for the underemployed and unemployed. Vocational Guidance Quarterly 18(June):26~272. Two manpower development and training programs in the field of mechanical technology were compared. High school graduates with satisfactory General Aptitude Test Battery scores on intelligence, numerical, and spatial ability were enrolled in either a job-oriented or field-oriented program. Evaluation was based on achievement during training, social class identification, job responsibilities, job satisfaction, mobility, unemployment, employer ratings, and salaries. Job responsi- bilities were analyzed using the third edition DOT'S DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 265 scales. Results did not indicate the overall superiority of one training program to the other. Borgen, Fred H., David J. Weiss, Howard E. A. Tinsley, Rene V. Dawis, and Lloyd H. Lofquist 1972 Occupational Reinforcer Patterns. Volume 1. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Department of Psychology, Vocational Psychology Research. Occupational Reinforcer Patterns (ORP'S) for 81 occupations are presented alphabetically, using the third edition DOT titles. An ORP describes the stimulus conditions available in the work environment for the satisfaction of workers' needs. Satisfaction is predicted for those whose needs (as measured by the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire) correspond with the ORP for a given occupation; a discrepancy between needs and ORP'S iS likely to result in dissatisfaction. The ORP'S are based on the combined Minnesota Job Description Questionnaire (MIDQ) ratings of supervisors of each occupation. Four types of information are presented: (1) a profile of occupational reinforcers, in graphic form, (2) a list of characteristics for each occupation, which are highly descriptive or moderately descriptive, (3) a listing of other occupations that have ORP profiles similar to a given occupation, and (4) summary statistics describing scale values and other information about the occupation (for ORP, Volume 2, see Rosen et al. (1972~. Brolin, Donn 1973 Vocational evaluation: Special education's responsibility. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded 8(February):12-17. Because many educable mentally retarded persons continue to lead marginal lives after school despite higher potentials, the author asserts that schools can and should provide more relevant, vocationally oriented programs to help eliminate the barriers encountered by the mentally retarded after they leave school. The components of a recommended vocational evaluation program for the schools are described. The third edition DOT iS cited as a valuable source for conducting job analyses, which is the first step in developing work and job samples. It is also a suggested reference for assessing occupational ability requirements and reinforcer systems. Broom, Leonard, Paul Duncan-Jones, F. Lancaster Jones, and Patrick McDonnell no Data, People and Things as Non-Vertical Aspects of Jobs: An Evaluation date and Modest Research Proposal. Unpublished paper, Australian National University, Canberra. Sociological analyses of occupational mobility have for the most part focused on "vertical" mobility (usually prestige, social standing, or socioeconomic class). The authors describe in detail the DOT'S worker traits and worker functions and suggest that they provide different kinds of variables that are equally important. They note that the use of the DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS scales in research has been limited by the incomparability of the DOT classification system with the census codes and their accompanying social statistics. In an effort to develop a tool for studying new

266 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS aspects of mobility patterns, Broom et al. encoded the 1971 Australian Census Classification of Occupations (ACCO) into the DOT framework. An analysis of the relationship between the worker trait groups and worker functions in the DOT and those assigned to the ACCO revealed strong correlations between the two sets of DOT ratings and also verified the reliability of the authors' cross-coding. The article concludes with an outline for future research of occupational mobility patterns using this kind of data. Broom, Leonard, Paul Duncan-Jones, F. Lancaster Jones, and Patrick McDonnell 1977 Worker traits and worker functions in DOT. Journal of Vocational Behavior 1 l(October):253-261. This paper, a by-product of an extension of the DOT to the Australian Census Classification of Occupations, attempts to validate the worker function hierarchies in terms of the worker traits required by different jobs in the DOT. It shows empirically that the variation in worker traits across the occupations listed in the DOT iS closely reflected in the 197 worker function profiles, which have better research potential. Brown, Julius S. 1975 How many workers enjoy discretion on the job? Industrial Relations 14(May): 19~202. This study attempts to provide a rough estimate of the number of workers who hold jobs that permit discretion, the distribution of such jobs by race and sex, and the pay differentials associated with this variable. Jobs with a DATA or THINGS rating of less than 5 or a PEOPLE rating of less than 6 (according to the DOT) were assumed to be discretionary. The percentage of employed persons who hold discretionary jobs (55 percent) has not changed between 1950 and 1970. Blacks have made some progress over the years; there still is, however, a distortion in favor of whites. In 1970 as in 1950, 70 percent of women were employed in nondiscretionary jobs. Finally, wages for discretionary work have increased faster than for nondiscretionary work. Brown, Robert A., and Donald A. Pool 1974 Levels of expectation and aspiration in the brain injured. Journal of Clinical Psychology 30(January):5~53. This study examined the behavior of brain-injured subjects on an experimental arithmetic task. Brain-injured subjects were matched with a control group on age, education, and premorbid occupational level as classified by the third edition DOT. Subjects' reported level of expectation and level of aspiration were compared with actual performance on the task. There were no differences between the groups in discrepancy between performance and expectation; however, the control group was far superior to the brain-injured subjects in number of problems completed. In comparing recently brain-injured subjects with other brain-injured subjects, it was found that the recently brain-injured group was unrealistic in their aspirations and

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 267 also less adequately adjusted than either the other brain-injured group or the control group. Caston, Richard J. 1978 A New Global Index for Occupational Statuses. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the American Sociological Association, San Francis- co, Calif., September. Caston argues that the use of Duncan's SE] as an index for occupational status is methodologically appropriate but it tends to produce avoidable conceptual confusion. He has proposed a new procedure for examining overall occupational statuses that employs indicators of the remunerative return of an occupation (in the form of salary, wages, and net self-employment income), its level of "prestige," and the required level of skills and training. In this procedure the traditional SE] educational measure is replaced by the DOT'S SVP and GED scales. Coburn, David 1975 Job-worker incongruence: Consequences for health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 16(June):198-212. This paper examines the consequences for health of work that is perceived as excessively complex or excessively simple job incongruence. An objective measure of incongruence was constructed by comparing the required GED for jobs (listed in the DOT) with the actual educational attainment of the respondent. The author indicates that this is a highly limited measure of job incongruence due primarily to the difficulty in equating respondents' jobs with those defined in the DOT. Results showed that excessively complex work is not disliked but is associated with lower mental and physical health. Overly simple work, in addition to being disliked, shows similar psychological but much less evident physical effects. Finally, perceived incongruence has a much larger effect on health than does objective incongruence. Cooper, Jacqueline Fribush 1976 Comparative impact of the Scot and the Vocational Card Sort on career salience and career exploration of women. Journal of Counseling Psychology 23(July):348-352. The effects of the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (scat), the Vocational Card Sort (vcs), and an exercise designed to make respondents aware of myths and realities of women in the world of work, the Auxiliary Informative Material (AIM), were examined in relation to (1) the number and type of career options considered, (2) frequency and variety of information-seeking behaviors, (3) career salience, and (4) satisfaction with the career exploration experience. The vcs materials include 90 cards, each with a DOT job title and job description. Results indicate some differences in the impact of the Scot and the vcs on the dependent variables; the vcs was found to be more effective than the scat in broadening career options and in increasing the frequency with which subjects read occupational information.

268 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS Although the AIM did not have these effects, it did increase the career salience of women. Cullen, John B., and Shelley M. Novick 1979 The Davis-Moore Theory of Stratification: A further examination and extension. American Journal of Sociology 84(May): 142~1437. Using data for 267 occupational positions, Cullen and Novick derive and test several propositions from the Davis-Moore functional theory of stratification. Seven characteristics from the third edition DOT were employed: the three worker function scores (complexity of an occupation's relationship to data, people, and things); a five-point scale of physical demands rating an occupation from sedentary to very heavy work; the job's context, measured by a three-point scale of whether the job is commonly performed inside, outside, or both; discomfort as a dichotomous variable, noting that the DOT identifies at least one unpleasant condition associated with the performance of the occupation (e.g., extremes of cold or heat); and the eight-point specific vocational preparation scale, used to operationalize training. The analysis involves regressing income and prestige on various positional characteristics. Required talent (the job's functional complexity), training (svP), and perceived functional importance were found to increase both prestige and income significantly. One aspect of disagreeableness (physically demanding work) negatively affected prestige but not income. Another aspect (outside work) positively affected income. In general, the empirical evidence was found supportive of the Davis-Moore theory of stratification. Dawis, Rene V., and Lloyd H. Lofquist 1974 The Minnesota Occupational Classification System (MOCS). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Department of Psychology, Worker Adjust- ment Project. The Minnesota Occupational Classification System (MOCS) iS a psychological taxonomy of work for an initial group of 337 occupational titles and alternate titles. The system draws on data and variables from the Department of Labor's occupational aptitude patterns, the University of Minnesota's occupational reinforcer-pattern clusters, Holland's occupational classification, and the DOT. Specifically, the MOCS uses the DOT'S group arrangement of occupations, worker trait groups (interests, temperaments, and physical demands), and worker functions (level of involvement with data, people, and things). Dawis, Rene V., and Lloyd H. Lofquist 1975 Toward a psychological taxonomy of work. Journal of Vocational Behavior 8~0ctober):165-171. On the basis of the theory of work adjustment, occupational aptitude patterns and occupational reinforcer pattern clusters are cross-classified to develop psychologi- cally homogeneous groups of occupations ("axons). Information from other different and independently developed classification systems is embedded in the taxon matrix, including the third edition DOT'S occupational groupings, worker

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 269 traits, and worker functions. The validity of the approach is supported by the consistency and complementarily of the descriptive information in a given taxon derived from these different sources. Daymont, Thomas N. 1980 Changes in black-white labor market opportunities. In Herbert S. Parnes, Gilbert Nestel, Thomas M. Chirikos, Thomas N. Daymont, Frank L. Mott, Donald O. Parsons & Associates, eds., From Middle to the Later Years: Longitudinal Studies of the Pre-Retirement and Post-Retirement Experiences of Men. Boston: MIT Press. This study examined changes in the relative employment opportunities of older black men between 1966 and 1976. The third edition DOT'S GED variable was used as a measure of education in the author's analyses. In terms of employment security and earnings the relative opportunities of blacks were quite sensitive to fluctuations in economic conditions, improving in good times and declining in bad. In general, however, the relative opportunities of blacks along both of these dimensions improved substantially during this period. The results also indicated that governmental efforts have had an impact but that racial equity has not been attained and that continued antidiscrimination efforts are in order. Desmond, Richard E., and David J. Weiss 1973 Supervisor estimation of abilities required in jobs. Journal of Vocational Behavior 3(April):181-194. The Minnesota Job Requirements Questionnaire (MIRQj, representing each of nine GATB-DOT worker aptitudes with five items, was developed and administered to supervisors of 11 selected jobs who rated the ability requirements of the job they supervised. These ratings were compared with expert ratings of the DOT and Occupational Ability Patterns (OAP'S) derived from administration of the General Aptitude Test Battery. The authors point out that the DOT'S worker trait groups are not rigorous methodologically and have not been tested in a predictive study, nor have reliability data been presented for the DOT ratings. The reliability and validity of the M]RQ ratings were examined and found sound. The OAP'S derived from the MIRQ compared favorably with those derived from the DOT and GATB, showing promise for the parsimonious MIRQ approach in the development of OAP'S. Desmond, Richard E., and David J. Weiss 1975 Worker estimation of ability requirements of their jobs. Journal of Vocational Behavior 7(August): 13-27. A modified version of the Minnesota Job Requirements Questionnare (MIRQj, representing the GATB-DOT worker aptitudes, was used by workers in l l selected jobs to rate the ability requirements of their jobs. The reliability of worker MIRQ ratings was comparable to that of supervisor ratings, and further examination showed construct validity for workers' ratings. Occupational Ability Patterns (OAP'S) derived from worker MIRQ ratings compared favorably with OAP'S derived

270 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS from supervisor MIRQ ratings, from the DOT, and from the GATB. Differences among workers on variables such as satisfaction, age, and tenure did not significantly affect their MIRQ ratings. Dewey, Cindy Rice 1974 Exploring interests: A non-sexist method. Personnel and Guidance Journal 52(January):311-315. This paper describes the Non-Sexist Vocational Card Sort (NSVCS), a derivative of the Tyler Vocational Card Sort. Seventy-six gender-neutral occupational titles are presented on 3 X 5 cards with DOT job definitions coded according to Holland's six personality types. The subject is asked to sort the occupations into three groups: might choose, in question, and would not choose. In exploring the reasons for these decisions the subject can learn more about his or her vocational preferences. Droege, Robert R., and John Hawk 1977 Development of a U.S. Employment Service interest inventory. Journal of Employment Counseling 14(June):65-71. Research was conducted to develop an interest inventory corresponding to the interest areas in the third edition DOT (Vol. 2~. An inventory of 307 occupational activity items was developed and administered to a sample of 1,115 subjects in a selected number of states. An analysis of the results proved unsuccessful in developing scales to measure the current 10 interest factors in the third edition DOT (Vol. 2~; however, a factor analysis led to identification of readily interpretable interest factors similar in meaning and occupational coverage for men and women and broad enough to include the range of occupations in the economy. These interest factors will form the basis for the new interest inventory. Dubnoff, S. 1978 Beyond Sex Typing: Capitalism, Patriarchy and the Growth of Female Employment 194~1970. Paper presented at the Rockefeller Foundation Conference on Women, Work and Family, New York. Changes in the sex composition of occupations between 1940 and 1970 were estimated, using the 295 detailed occupations of the 1960 census as a standard. The effect of median earnings and the third edition DOT variables of DATA, PEOPLE, THINGS, GED, SVP and temperaments items 3 (supervision) and 4 (autonomy) on change in the percentage of women in occupations was assessed. The results showed that as the degree of complexity and level of involvement with data, people, and things increased, the percentage of women in an occupation decreased. The GED and svP were strongly and negatively related to changes in the percentage of women in an occupation. The relative growth in the percentage of women was likely to be high in occupations in which supervision was high and low in occupations requiring worker autonomy. Finally, occupations with higher earnings showed less growth in the percentage of women employed. By virtually every measure considered, the percentage of women increased in occupations that were considered less desirable.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 271 Dubnoff, S. 1978 Inter-Occupational Shifts and Changes in the Quality of Work in the American Economy, 1900-1970. Paper presented at the Labor Studies Section of the Society for the Study of Social Problems, San Francisco, Calif. Census data for detailed occupations in each year between 1900 and 1970 and Temme s weighted estimates of the DOT'S scores for DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS, svP, and GED for the 295 detailed occupations in the 1960 Census were used to determine the shifts in distribution of workers across relevant categories of occupational characteristics, not occupations. With the exception of the people and GED scores, the scores indicated a trend toward both a lessening of the complexity of work and a decrease in the amount of required training time. The two exceptions, GED and PEOPLE, are both biased against manual labor and merely reflect the transition from manual to nonmanual labor. Within the nonmanual group, women fared far worse than men on all measures. In fact, they were the only group to show a net decline in required training time. Dumas, Neil S., and John E. Muthard 1971 Job analysis method for health-related professions: A pilot study of physical therapists. Journal of Applied Psychology 55~0ctober):458-465. A method for analyzing work of health personnel was devised and applied in a physical therapy service. Procedures for developing the special language for describing the tasks performed by physical therapists and methods for training observers to prepare sequential reports of the ongoing work of staff are presented. In encoding the "action" part of the task the authors used a modified version of the DOT'S DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS variables. Results indicated that observers could reliably report the detailed characteristics of the tasks in a physical therapy service over an extended period of time. Eckaus, R. S. 1964 Economic criteria for education and training. Review of Economics and Statistics 46(May): 181-190. Eckaus criticizes the use of rate of return criteria for determining the economic significance of education and suggests, as an alternative approach, the direct computation of a job's educational requirements. The third edition DOT'S SVP and GED scales were used to compute the educational requirements of census occupations. Eckaus converted these scales into year equivalents and then estimated the requirements for the census occupations. The results are presented in tabular form. Finally, the application of this approach to education and manpower planning is discussed. Eckaus' conversion of the two training time scales to year equivalents has since been adopted by a number of researchers.

272 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS Ekpo-Ufot, Abel 1976 Self perceived abilities relevant in the task (SPART): A potential predictor of labor turnover in an industrial work setting. Personnel Psychology 29(Autumn):405-4 1 6. It has been suggested that workers' self-perceptions of their task-relevant abilities would predict their tendencies to quit their jobs. This paper describes the development and implementation of a SPART (self-perception of abilities relevant to the task) inventory for the job of auto assembler. The third edition DOT and the Estimates of Worker Trait Requirements for 4,000 Jobs were used as a source of worker aptitude requirements in formulating the inventory. Support was found for the reliability and construct validity of SPART; SPART was also somewhat predictive of job turnover. The author suggests further work to improve the instrument and discusses its possible applications. Fine, Sidney A. 1955 A structure of worker functions. Personnel and Guidance Journal 34~0ctober):66 73. A structure of 26 worker functions, developed by the U.S. Employment Service and later incorporated into the third edition DOT, iS described. A brief discussion of the structure and definitions of these functions is followed by a discussion of their reliability and their application. Fine suggests that they may be a useful research device in connection with job analysis, the study of criterion dimensionality, job classification, worker classification, performance evaluation, and the study of job satisfaction. Fine, Sidney A. 1957 A reexamination of 'transferability of skills' Part II. Monthly Labor Review (August):938-948. The first half of this article examined some of the difficulties behind the assumptions about transferability of skills. This part explores a systematic approach to transferability based on the Functional Occupational Classification Project (which was later incorporated, in part, into the third edition DOT). Fine outlines the classification system and describes how the work performed compo- nents (worker functions level of involvement with data, people, and things; work fields; and materials, products, subject matter, and services) can be organized to generate 5 orders of job similarity. The author suggests that depending on the training time required (low, medium, or high), for certain orders of similarity, transferability is feasible and practical. He then suggests practical applications of his model: to determine, in the case of unemployment insurance applicants, which jobs are "suitable" to skills they acquired on previous jobs; to counsel workers who must change jobs because of a handicap, age, or technological change; to determine how and where surplus skills in certain labor market areas can best be absorbed by other industries; to prepare for civilian defense; and to plan vocational training programs of the widest practical application in industry.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 273 Fine, Sidney A. 1957 USES occupational classification and Minnesota occupational rating scales. Journal of Counseling Psychology 4:218-223. An effort was made to determine whether the Minnesota occupational rating scales (MORS) of seven common ability areas and the U.S. Employment Service (USES) Functional Occupational Classification Project's (FOCP) worker trait and work performed dimensions serve the same purpose. Four experienced occupational analysts were provided with FOCP data for 37 of the MORS jobs and were asked to determine the MORS values for each job. The results indicated that the relatively gross data on worker traits and work performed components do have discriminato- ry value. Each of the two FOCP groups of data provided a basis for arriving at judgments about job requirements consistent with those arrived at by the MORS. Furthermore, the two sets of data traits and work performed-combined were more predictive than either of them taken separately. Fine, Sidney A. 1958 Matching job requirements and worker qualifications. Personnel 34(May):52-58. Following a brief account of how the Estimates of Worker Trait Requirements for 4,000 Jobs as Defined in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles came to be published, Fine outlines the content and structure of the publication. He emphasizes that the DOT job definitions and worker trait requirements should be used as reference points and that when they are considering a specific position, personnel staffs should check any variation from the DOT definitions and alter the worker trait evaluations accordingly. In closing, a number of practical uses of Estimates of Worker Trait Requirements for 4,000 Jobs outside the Employment Service are considered, including its use as an aid in determining recruitment policies, which can contribute to worker morale by using the skills and knowledge of workers effectively. Fine, Sidney A. 1968 The 1965 Third Edition of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles- Content, Contrasts, and Critique. Kalamazoo, Mich.: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. The content and organization of the third edition DOT are described and compared with previous editions. Fine suggests six improvements that could be made in the publication: (1) Replace the term "professional," a status-oriented title for the first major occupational group, with more descriptive, content-oriented titles (e.g., artistic, scientific). (2) Convert to a nine-digit code to meet the needs of education curricula (significantly different from the nine-digit code in the fourth edition). (3) Provide as a DOT supplement a short, easy-to-use manual for classifying workers' experience and defining worker traits. (4) Adopt an encyclopedic rather than dictionary format. Job definition entries should be listed by type of work instead of alphabetically (a suggestion that has been incorporated into the fourth edition). (5) Provide a separate volume of jobs and titles by industry group or distinguish

274 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS between base and undefined titles by using varied typefaces (the latter suggestion has also been incorporated into the fourth edition). (6) Include a 5- or 10-page selected bibliography of DOT uses in research to assist future investigations. Fine, Sidney A. 1968 The use of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles as a source of estimates of educational and training requirements. Journal of Human Resources 3(Summer):363-375. Fine explains the supplementary data of the third edition DOT "as completely as possible so that they can be used [in research] . . . with a maximum of insight and flexibility." The concept of "requirements" (educational and training) is discussed, and explanations of the GED and svP scales follow. He describes the estimating procedure that produced these scales and comments on the use and interpretation of the estimates. Finally, the author explains the DOT'S occupational code system. Fine, Sidney A., and Carl A. Heinz 1957 The estimates of worker trait requirements for 4,000 jobs. Personnel and Guidance Journal 36(November):168-174. Following a brief account of the historical factors that led to the publication of Estimates of Worker Trait Requirements for 4,000 Jobs as Defined in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, Fine outlines the content and structure of the document. The rating methods and reliability of the scales are examined and found to be sound. The significance and general limitations of the data are reviewed. In closing, Fine discusses possible uses of the publication in the Employment Service and as a source of job specifications for employers, of occupational information for vocational and personnel counselors, and of guidance for individual workers. Fine, Sidney A., and Carl A. Heinz 1958 The functional occupational classification structure. Personnel and Guidance Journal 37(November):18~192. The Functional Occupational Classification Structure (FOCS), a system of three- part, nine-digit codes, is described in detail. One part (three digits) classifies what workers do and reflects worker traits; a second classifies the work that gets done, that is, technologies; a third classifies materials, products, subject matter, and services, or what the jobs are mainly about. The aptitudes, interests, temperaments, physical demands, working conditions, training times, and industry associated with 4,000 job titles have been analyzed, and in searching for groupings with the optimum integration of worker trait information it was found that worker functions (level of involvement with data, people, and things) provided the best sort. The authors suggest several structural variations of the classification system, discuss possible applications, and outline areas of future study. Much of the FOCS has been used in the third and fourth editions of the DOT.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 275 Gaertner, Gregory 1976 The intergenerational transmission of job complexity in horizontal divisions of the occupational structure. In James A. Davis, ad., Studies of Social Change Since 1948. Volume 2. Chicago: University of Chicago, National Opinion Research Center. This paper explores the extent to which job complexity plays a part in the stratification of occupations. Results indicate (1) that the various sorts of job complexity for fathers are differentially but generally associated with the corresponding complexity of children's jobs, (2) that industry/situs groupings seem to have distinctive profiles of the various sorts of job complexity, and (3) that the effect of parental job complexity on child job complexity varies by importance of that trait in the industry in which the child's occupation is found. Job complexity was assessed using the DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS scales of the third edition DOT. Gottfredson, Gary D. 1977 Career stability and redirection in adulthood. Journal of Applied Psychology 62(August):436~45. Age trends in the degree of career stability and change over a 5-year period were examined for a large sample of men and women workers. Data on current occupation (in 1970) and occupation 5 years earlier were collected by the U.S. Census Bureau and reorganized for this study using Holland's occupational classification. In addition, the third edition DOT'S GED ratings were assigned to each occupation. Career stability increased with age for both sexes, and age differences persisted even when the analyses were restricted to occupation changers or socioeconomically mobile workers. People initially employed in "consistent" occupations (as defined by Holland's theory) were more stable than those initially employed in "inconsistent" occupations. Some kinds of midcareer redirection were more common than others. Gottfredson, Gary D., and Denise C. Daiger 1977 Using a classification of occupations to describe age, sex and time differences in employment patterns. Journal of Vocational Behavior 10(April):121-138. Employment data from the 1960 and 1970 censuses were organized using Holland's occupational classification to examine age, sex, and level of differences in employment and to detect changes over the 10-year period. Data were organized in terms of both kind and level of work, as measured by the third edition DOT'S GED variable. The results form a systematic psychological description of the work force and its changing nature that can be communicated to people planning their careers, personnel workers and counselors, and government agencies and planners. For instance, a preliminary analysis revealed that "realistic" work (in Holland's definition) is becoming relatively less common and the sex composition of the occupational categories may be changing.

276 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS Gottfredson, Gary D., and Daniel J. Lipstein 1975 Using personal characteristics to predict parolee and probationer employment stability. Journal of Applied Psychology 60~0ctober): 64= 648. Predictors of employment stability were investigated for male parolees and probationers. Moderate significant correlations were found between stability (inferred from job referral records) and occupational consistency, job skill (defined by the DOT'S GED scale), socialization, prior job tenure, incarcerations, auto theft, and a base expectancy measure. However, no significant correlations between employment stability and parole agent ratings were found. Gottfredson, Gary D., John L. Holland, and Linda S. Gottfredson 1975 The relation of vocational aspiration and assessments to employment reality. Journal of Vocational Behavior 7(August):135-148. The occupations of men and women detailed in the 1970 census were coded according to Holland's classification scheme. Those occupations not listed in the classification were coded by translating the third edition DOT code into Holland's categories following. Viernstein's (1972) procedure. An occupation's level was defined as the GED level listed in the third edition DOT. Survey data about people's vocational aspirations and the results of vocational assessments made with and without norms for men and women at two educational levels were also coded according to Holland's classification. Results indicated that kinds of employment differ greatly for different educational levels and between the sexes. The use of sex- based interest inventory norms seemed unrealistic because they created distribu- tions that diverged greatly from the distribution of actual employment. Some implications of the congruence between kinds of people and their employment are discussed for vocational guidance, test development, and career development research and theory. Gottfredson, Linda S. 1978 The Construct Validity of Holland's Occupational Classification in Terms of Prestige, Census, Department of Labor and Other Classification Systems. Report No. NIE-400-77-0019. Baltimore, Md.: Center for Social Organization of Schools, The Johns Hopkins University. Holland's six-category typology was examined in relation to the activities and requirements presented in the DOT (involvement with data, people, and things, GED level, and svP) and to several other occupational classification systems. Compari- sons of the classifications indicated that Holland's typology has considerable validity for describing work activities, general training requirements, and rewards, particularly when it is supplemented by a measure of occupational level. Results also showed that prestige, GED, SVP, involvement with data, and self-direction were all highly correlated and reflected level of work. Involvement with people was positively correlated and involvement with things negatively correlated with prestige.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses Hartog, Joop 277 1977 On the multicapability theory of income distribution. European Econom- ic Review 10(November): 157-171. This paper presents the "multicapable theory of income distribution," an attempt to describe a number of labor market phenomena by decomposing labor services into those arising from a number of different capabilities. Job wage rates are explained by prices of capabilities and the shape of the income distribution from assumptions on the distribution of capabilities and on labor supply behavior. Empirical support for the theory is also outlined, using U.S. Census income data matched with third edition DOT aptitude requirements for 1949, 1959, and 1969. Hauser, Robert M., and David L. Featherman, eds. 1977 The Process of Stratification: Trends and Analyses. New York: Academic Press. In Appendix B the Dictionary of Occupational Titles is recommended as a tool in coding occupations and industries into detailed 1970 Census categories. The DOT often lists several titles for one job, and coders are referred to the DOT when a job title cannot be found in the U.S. Census Alphabetical Index of Industries and Occupations. The definitions are also a great help in clarifying the activities and duties associated with a particular job so that it can be more accurately classified. Hecht, Alfred R., and Lynn H. Willett 1974 Using a data bank for local career program planning and counseling. Educational Technology 14(April):33-36. Morraine Valley Community College is developing a data bank for systematically gathering, reporting, and updating community socioeconomic data for occupation- al program planning and counseling. This computerized bank includes data on firm charcteristics, paraprofessional and technical job titles, and job functions for selected job titles. Both the third edition DOT and sac titles are used. Hemmens, George C., Edward M. Bergman, and Robert M. Moroney 1978 The practitioner's view of social planning. Journal of the American Institute of Planners 44(April):181-192. This article reports on a study of recent graduates of planning and public policy schools who consider social policy planning to be their primary professional practice interest. Information from job incumbents on the job tasks performed and skills used on the job (coded according to the third edition DOT'S worker function and GED scales) suggests that skill needs on the job are somewhat different from the skill training received in the professional schools. An examination of the fit between their education and their professional experience shows that these planners found their training lacking in communications skills and an understand- ing of the context of practice.

278 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS Hurt, David J., and Michael C. Holen 1976 Work values in vocational interest exploration. Journal of Vocational Behavior 8(February):89-93. Data on Kuder Preference Record-Vocational scores, expressed vocational interest, and work values of 42 ninth graders were converted to comparable bases using Holland's environmental model. This was done using Viernstein's (1972) procedure, in which Holland's coding was adopted for all occupations listed in the third edition DOT. Work values was established as a significant, independently explanatory variable. The demonstrated utility of work values coupled with the commonality of expressed and inventoried interest suggest using work values to facilitate decision making with the vocationally decided, omitting the use of interest inventories. Johnson, William F., Thomas A. Korn, and Dennis J. Dunn 1975 Comparing three methods of presenting occupational information. Vocational Guidance Quarterly 24(September):62-66. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate a methodology for local development of slide-tape materials on occupational information materials and to determine whether the slide-tape presentation was a more effective means of conveying this information than printed or oral presentations. The occupational information was developed according to the Handbook for Analyzing Jobs, supplemented by the DOT and the Occupational Outlook Handbook. It was found that the slide-tape mode was the most effective way to present occupational information to the participants, who were all part of an atypical vocational counseling target group. Jones, Jean J., and Thomas A. DeCoths 1969 Job analysis: National survey findings. Personnel Journal 48~0cto- ber):805-809. This paper reports the results of a nationwide survey of current uses, methods, and practices of job analysis. First, there is widespread dissatisfaction with present job analysis programs because of a lack of standardized, quantifiable techniques for gathering, recording, and presenting job information and limited use of EDP. Second, most job analysis programs are characterized by relatively little emphasis on job variables involved with human relations. Third, owing to the rapidly growing work force, the current emphasis on upgrading the unemployed and underemployed, and the impact of technological change on the nature of work, the traditional techniques of job analysis may no longer be adequate to meet the needs of the economy. The third edition DOT iS cited as containing variables useful in job analysis schemes. Jusenius, Carol L. 1977 The influence of work experience, skill requirement, and occupational segregation on women's earnings. Journal of Economics and Business 29(Winter): 107-1 15.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 279 Two competing explanations of the causes of the male-female wage differential are examined: (1) women typically have fewer years of work experience than men, and (2) occupational segregation has resulted in the overcrowding of women into a relatively small number of occupations. In her wage equations, Jusenius controls for the skill required by an occupation by using a modified version of the third edition DOT'S SVP scale, making it possible to test the additional hypothesis that work experience is an effective way of accumulating human capital in only some occupations, the relatively high-skill occupations. It was found that both work experience and occupational segregation are critical determinants of women's wage position, the relative importance of each depending on the skill level of the occupation. Wage differentials in low-skill occupations are accounted for primarily by occupational segregation, while in the high-skill category, women are most disadvantaged by the amount of work experience. Kalleberg, Arne L., and Larry J. Griffin 1978 Positional sources of inequality in job satisfaction. Sociology of Work and Occupations 5(November):371~01. This paper attempts to conceptualize and assess that portion of the variation in job satisfaction that is generated by differential positions in the social and technical division of labor. Within each class, occupational position was determined using the U.S. Census codes, Duncan's (1961) SE] scores, and five scores taken from the third edition DOT (DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS, GED, and svP). Results indicated that working-class jobs are less satisfying because their incumbents obtain less financial and intrinsic job rewards than do workers in other classes. Kalleberg, Arne L., and Paula M. Hudis 1979 Wage change in the late career: A model for the outcomes of job sequences. Social Science Research 8(March):16~0. A model for the outcomes of job sequences is used to estimate the effects on wage change of a number of personal resources (e.g., age, training, education, and health) and measures of opportunity structure (public versus private employment, unemployment rates, geographic area, the DOT'S SVP measure, etch. The roles of these factors for black versus white men and for various patterns of labor market behavior are assessed. For men in their late careers it was found that svP had a significant effect on wage change in general, and most specifically for white men who did not change occupations or employers. Education generally had a stronger effect on wage change for whites, while training had a stronger effect on career advancement for blacks. Kalleberg, Arne L., and Aage B. Sorenson 1973 The measurement of the effects of overtraining on job attitudes. Sociological Methods and Research 2(November):2 15-238. This paper presents various models for measuring the effect of being overtrained; overtraining refers to a discrepancy between a person's training and the educational requirements of his or her job. The GED scale from the third edition

280 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS DOT was used as a measure of a job's educational requirement. The various assumptions regarding the effects of overtraining that are embodied in the different models are discussed as well as the difficulties with using such variables as GED and years of education. Kalleberg found that a simple additive model describes the effect of overtraining on job satisfaction, while a model adding interaction terms is needed to account for the effect of overtraining on job development. Kohn, Melvin L. 1969 Class and Conformity: A Study in Values. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. The relationship of class to parental values and, more generally, to orientation is examined. The author first argues that class is pervasively related to men's valuation of self-direction or conformity. He then argues that class differences in parental valuation of self-direction or conformity provide a necessary key for understanding class differences in parental behavior. Finally, the author attempts to interpret why class is related to values and orientation. Many of the studies conducted by Kohn and his colleagues use a measure of substantive complexity modeled closely after the DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS scales of the third edition DOT. Kohn describes his scales as differing from those of the DOT only in a more careful assessment of supervision, greater flexibility in ratings of multiple job functions, more stringent ratings of data and less stringent ratings of things, and a slightly different rating of people for teachers and consultants. These differences, he points out, are minor. Kohn, Melvin L., and Carmi Schooler 1969 Class, occupation and orientation. American Sociological Review 34~0ctober):659-678. Interviews were conducted with 3,100 men, representative of all men in the United States employed in civilian occupations. About half the questions were directed to job, occupation, and career, and the remainder to background information, values, and orientation. Several questions dealt with the nature of the worker's involve- ment with data, people, and things, a classification scheme closely modeled after the DOT. Kohn and Schooler found that the worker functions were somewhat related to all aspects of values and orientation studied. Working with data or people was associated with valuing self-direction and holding a consonant orientation, while working with things was associated with having conformist values and orientation. It is interesting that the specifics of the men's work with data, people, and things- the kinds of data, tools, or people they worked with- were found to be relatively unimportant. The relationships between other occupational characteristics and values and orientations were also examined and discussed. Kohn, Melvin L., and Carmi Schooler 1973 Occupational experience and psychological functioning: An assessment of reciprocal effects. American Sociological Review 38(February):97-118.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 281 The central issue of this paper is whether adult occupational experiences of men affect or merely reflect their psychological functioning. Twelve occupational conditions defining the structural imperatives of a job were isolated. Kohn and Schooler argue that the relationships between occupational conditions and psychological functioning result from a continuing interplay between job and man, in which the effects of job on man are far from trivial. An assessment of the reciprocal effects of the substantive complexity of the work and several facets of psychological functioning indicates that substantive complexity has a decidedly greater impact on psychological functioning than the reverse. The third edition DOT'S DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS scales were used as a source of external validation for the authors' index of substantive complexity. These scales were also used in assessing the complexity of past jobs. Kolstad, Andrew J. 1976 Sources of Occupational Prestige: A Study of Public Opinion. Unpubl- ished dissertation. Stanford, Calif.: The Laboratory for Social Research, Stanford University. Using U.S. Census data and the third edition DOT'S scales for GED, SVP, PEOPLE, working conditions, ability, and temperaments, Kolstad attempted to determine what attributes of work roles in addition to earnings influence public opinion ratings of various occupations and how the magnitude of these influences varies across the general public by socioeconomic position and other social factors. Previous research has examined the dependence of public opinion on earnings, educational attainments, and other census characteristics of only the male workers in each occupation. Including data on female workers changed the earlier findings in that the racial composition effect became insignificant and the female composition effect became positive and significant. Kolstad, Andrew 1977 Sex Composition and the Social Standing of Occupations. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the American Sociological Associa- tion, Chicago, Ill., September. Occupations held mainly by men and those held mainly by women were compared using 1963-1965 NORC surveys of the social standing of occupational titles matched to the 1960 Census occupational classification, census statistics on both male and female workers, and DOT data on GED, SVP, physical demands, and relationship to people. The percentage female was found to be negatively correlated with earnings, occupational prestige, GED, and svP. However, after adjusting for the effects of earnings and educational requirements on occupational prestige, work in occupations held mainly by women was significantly more positively evaluated than work in occupations held mainly by men. Kopstein, Felix F. 1977 Task specifications and diagnosis in educational technology. Educational Technology 17~0ctober):2~30.

282 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS Two scientific approaches to educational technology, a prediction and a control paradigm, are discussed. The author describes a method for constructing and verifying the accuracy of task specifications. An illustration from an occupational assessment system based on work sample techniques is presented, and the third edition DOT iS cited as a useful source of requirements needed to construct these tasks. Uses of task specifications are suggested, including sensitive detailed diagnoses of performance errors. Landrum, John H., and C. Todd Strohmenger 1979 A basic in education and agency career counseling: The new DOT. Vocational Guidance Quarterly 27(June):29 1-300. The purpose of this article is to describe objectively and encourage strongly the use of the fourth edition DOT by counselors in education and community agency settings. The authors feel that many career counselors may find that by spending additional time investigating the DOT and integrating it with closely related materials and other career information courses, they can put all of these tools to work more efficiently for their clients and themselves. Lindholm, Byron W., and John Touliatos 1976 Comparison of children in regular and special education classes on the Behavior Problem Checklist. PsychologicalReports 38(April):451~58. To establish the validity of the Behavior Problem Checklist, 1,999 white and 192 Mexican-American children in regular classes and 192 white and 17 Mexican- American children in special education classes were tested. Social class of the subjects was defined in terms of the occupation of the head of the child's household, derived from the DOT classification. Teachers provided general information and checklist ratings. All four factors of the checklist were found to be valid. In addition, there was some indication that white subjects in regular classes were more consistent from social class to social class than white subjects in special education classes. Lindholm, Byron W., John Touliatos, and Amy Rich 1978 Racial differences in behavior disorders of children. Journal of School Psychology 16(Spring):42~8. This study compared black and white children on the Behavior Problem Checklist. Data were obtained from school records and from teachers. Social class was defined in terms of father's employment according to the classification system of the third edition DOT. Class I included professional and technical workers, managers, officials, and proprietors; class II was composed of clerical and sales workers; class III was composed of craftsmen and operatives; and class IV was composed of laborers, service workers, and the unemployed. Blacks were judged to have a greater frequency of behavior disorders than whites, and the lower classes had more problems than the higher classes. Differences between social classes were greater for blacks than for whites. Other interactions centering on race are discussed.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 283 Lucas, Robert E. B. 1974 The distribution of job characteristics. Review of Economics and Statistics 5 6 ~ N o v e m b e r ~ : 5 3 ~ 5 4 0 . This paper presents a cross-sectional analysis of the distribution across population classes (black-white, male-female) of workers' job characteristics. Information on job characteristics (aptitudes, training time, temperaments, physical demands, relationship to people, and working conditions) was taken from the DOT, and data on individuals were supplied by the Survey of Economic Opportunity. Lucas found that controlling for sex, negative job characteristics were considerably more frequent among blacks. Negative working conditions and physical demands were in general less common among female workers but were almost as frequent for black women as for white men. Results also indicated that women hold jobs requiring far less specific vocational preparation (svP) and that there is a tendency toward "improvement" of job characteristics with age only for white men. Lucas, Robert E.B. 1977 Hedonic wage equations and psychic wages in the returns to schooling. American Economic Review (September):549-558. The study's objective was to discover how individuals' wages vary, all other things being equal, with the quality of working life by inserting job characteristic variables into a wage equation that also included personal data. Lucas first considers the problems of choice when employers and employees face parametric wages, in a situation in which both work and workers vary in quality. By using the Survey of Economic Opportunity and the DOT data on job characteristics, the previously formulated hedonic wage equation is estimated. Results show that workers receive higher money wages in compensation for jobs involving repetitive routines and obnoxious physical work environments and for those jobs requiring higher levels of svP and GED . Finally, results on psychic wages as a return to schooling indicate a considerable downward bias from estimating such returns in terms of monetary rewards alone. McCloud, Barbara K., Marlys M. Mitchell, and Gilbert G. Ragland 1976 Content analysis of basal reading texts for normal and retarded children. Journal of Special Education 10(Fall):259-264. In an effort to discover whether there are differences between the content of basal stories written for normal children and those written for or widely used with educable mentally retarded (EMR) children, achievement imagery, dependent behaviors, and occupational roles of the characters were examined. Occupational roles of the story characters were determined using the nine categories of the third edition DOT. No significant differences in frequency of occupations were found; there was, however, an indication that readers for retarded children more often describe occupations in the professional, technical, and managerial classification. The authors discuss the need for exposure to realistic vocational choices for EMR children.

284 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS McKinlay, Bruce 1976 Characteristics of Jobs That are Considered Common: Review of Litera- ture and Research. Information Series No. 102. Columbus: Ohio State University, Center for Vocational Education. This paper reviews the occupational literature in an attempt to identify or infer what it contributes to an understanding of occupational similarities and occupa- tional transfers. The third edition DOT is described in detail in the author's discussion of systems of job analysis, worker traits, and socioeconomic clas- sifications. McLaughlin, Steven D. 1978 Sex differences in the determinants of occupational status. Sociology of Work and Occupations 5(February):5-30. This paper examines the equivalence of occupational status as it is assigned to occupations held mainly by men and those held mainly by women. The third edition DOT furnished descriptive data on 331 occupations drawn from the 1970 detailed census occupational classification. The nature of the occupational task; the DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS variables; the aptitudes demanded of workers; and the required physical strength were examined. The author felt that the ordering of complexity levels for the DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS variables was not clear enough to warrant the use of a 0-8 point rating scale. For his purposes, he trichotomized the DATA variable into a conceptually interval scale and dichoto- mized PEOPLE and THINGS variables to form the dummy variables representing the presence or absence of an occupational relationship. McLaughlin found that occupations dominated by women had an average status score lower than the occupations in which 75 percent of the workers were men, but occupations in the mixed category (50-75 percent) had the highest mean status value. The mix of status-relevant occupational characteristics that contributed to these scores was strikingly different for the three occupational categories. Miller, Ann R. 1971 The federal inter-agency Committee on Occupational Classification: A progress report. Pp. 11-19 in American Statistical Association 1971 Proceedings of the Business and Economics Statistics Section. Washington, D.C.: American Statistical Association. The paper provides a sampling of the activities of the Committee on Occupational Classification of the Office of Management and Budget, in connection with establishing a standard occupational classification system and a convertibility arrangement for the existing U.S. Census and DOT systems. Miller discusses the discrepancies between the two classification systems and describes the committee's work on cross-coding the 1960 Census occupational titles, the nine-digit DOT codes, and Current Population Survey returns. As an example of the advantages of being able to move from one system to another, data from the CPS-DOT coding project, summarizing the relationship between workers' educational attainment and the GED required of their occupations, are presented. Finally, Miller outlines

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 285 the committee's work on a standard occupational classification system, presenting a draft for the professional occupations, a preliminary draft for clerical occupa- tions, and a first experimental grouping for blue-collar workers. Miller, Ann R. 1971 Occupations of the Labor Force According to the Dictionary of Occupation- al Titles. Statistical Evaluation Report No. 9. Washington, D.C.: Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget. Some results of an experimental project designed to obtain data on the relationship between the occupational classification systems of the DOT and that of the Census Bureau are presented. Since this is the first attempt to use the DOT as a classification tool for comprehensive labor force data, the primary emphasis of the report is on the data produced by applying the DOT system. The first section presents selected demographic characteristics of persons classified in the major DOT categories and the larger divisions and groups within these. Included is a cross tabulation, at the major group level, of data classified by both the Census Bureau and DOT occupational systems. In the second section, tabulations for certain internal characteristics of the DOT structure itself are presented. A preliminary analysis of distributions under the functional hierarchies developed by the Employment Service (level of involvement with data, people, and things), as they appear when they are applied to the labor force, is included. Miller, Joanne, Carmi Schooler, Melvin L. Kohn, and Karen A. Miller 1979 Women and work: The psychological effects of occupational conditions. American Journal of Sociology 85(July):6~94. The central issue of this paper is whether adult occupational experiences of women affect or merely reflect their psychological functioning. Several occupational conditions defining the structural imperatives of a job were examined, including a measure of substantive complexity modeled closely after the third edition DOT'S DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS scales. The authors found that job conditions that encourage self-direction are related to effective intellectual functioning and an open, flexible orientation to others, while those that constrain opportunities for self-direction are related to ineffective intellectual functioning and a rigid social orientation. Causal analysis demonstrates that job conditions not only correlate with but actually affect psychological functioning. For women, as for Kohn and Schooler's (1973) men, occupational conditions have a decided psychological impact. Mortimer, Jeylan T. 1974 Patterns of intergenerational occupational movements: A smallest-space analysis. American Journal of Sociology 79(March):1278-1299. When the smallest-space analysis technique was used to investigate the relationship between fathers' occupations and male college students' career choices, three dimensions of work were found to be relevant to the interpretation of the space: autonomy, rewards, and functional foci. The 129 occupational groups studied were

286 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS classified according to the DOT'S interest variables, and a determination was made as to whether the jobs were oriented primarily to people or to data and things. Examination of the data indicated a strong pattern of occupational inheritance. When sons did not inherit their father's occupations, they still tended to choose work offering their fathers' vocational experiences. Mortimer, Jeylan T. 1976 Social class, work and the family: Some implications of the father's occupation for familial relationships and sons' career decisions. Journal of Marriage and the Family 38(May):241-256. The effects of both vertical and nonvertical dimensions of father's work on family relations and vocational socialization are examined. Fathers' occupations were grouped into 12 categories: the professional groups were doctors, dentists, scientists, lawyers, teachers, and college professors; the business groups were classified as self-employed or not, and a distinction was made between people- oriented and technical (data-oriented or things-oriented) occupations on the basis of the third edition DOT interest ratings; artists and government employees were also categorized. Higher-income fathers were perceived as being closer to their sons and as being more powerful family figures, but the functional focus of work had no impact on parent-child relations. Closeness to father emerged as an important variable mediating the transmission of different occupational reward values, depending on the situs, prestige, and functional focus of the work. Further analysis revealed that the combination of a prestigious paternal role model and a close father-son relationship engenders the most occupationally differentiated vocational socialization. Mortimer, Jeylan T., and Jon Lorence 1979 Work experience and occupational value socialization: A longitudinal study. American JournalofSociology 84(May):1361-1385. This research examines the effects of work experience on occupational reward values, which are of central importance in occupational choice, career develop- ment, and subjective responses to work. Whereas it is often assumed that occupational values remain fixed throughout the work history, a confirmatory factor analysis of data obtained from male college graduates over a 10-year period demonstrates that work autonomy and income influence intrinsic, people-oriented, and extrinsic values. To control for the effects of fathers' work on sons' values and content of occupations, the third edition DOT'S scale for DATA was used to rate the complexity of father's work, and these data were considered in the analyses. Neff, Walter S. 1970 Work and rehabilitation. Journal of Rehabilitation 36(September-Octo- ber): 1 6-22. The author notes the close connection between issues of rehabilitation and of work and finds the current techniques of aptitude and ability assessment inadequate. Standardized vocational tests are unsuitable for clinical work because they are

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 287 designed for use with normal populations and because they have poor predictive value. Neff feels that the DOT has not been especially useful in rehabilitation efforts because clients have at best made a marginal work adjustment and tend to represent the lowest rungs of the occupational ladder. The DOT iS felt to be inadequate in these areas. The author discusses other rehabilitation techniques. Newman, Jack, and Sidney A. Fine 1956 A note on Thorndike's Preference Blank for Psychologists. American Psychologist 1 l(July):33~336. The authors demonstrate that the worker function and work performed compo- nents developed for the DOT produce results very similar to those obtained by Thorndike's Preference Blank for Psychologists. Thorndike's 119-item form was designed to assess the activity preferences of psychologists through an in-depth statistical analysis resulting in five independent activity clusters. Newman and Fine describe their functional occupational classification structure and suggest that it may be useful for this kind of analysis of other professions as well. Newnan, Owen S., Robert K. Heaton, and Ralph A. W. Lehman 1978 Neuropsychological and MMPI correlates of patients' future employment characteristics. Perceptual and Motor Skills 46(April):635-642. This study investigated the utility of neuropsychological test scores in predicting severe vocational variables. Patients who had received neuropsychological evalu- ations were recontacted and questioned about their employment over the previous 6 months. Those employed were asked about job stability, hours worked, and wages earned and were administered the Minnesota Job Requirements Question- naire (an assessment of the nine DOT worker trait aptitude requirements). Patients' scores on the Halstead-Reitan Battery, the WAlS, and the MMP] were highly correlated with employment status, income, and skills required on the jobs held. The results suggest that these tests may have clinical utility in assessing patients' employment ability as well as the types of jobs for which they are suited. Nuckols, Troy E., and Raymond Banducci 1974 Knowledge of occupations Is it important in occupational choice? Journal of Counseling Psychology 21(May):191-195. The knowledge that 684 high school senior boys had of selected occupations was examined in relation to academic achievement, social status, formulation of future plans, and personal experiences. Students rated 12 occupations in terms of selected DOT worker trait requirements (interests, aptitudes, GED, and svP) needed for successful performance of a job and were asked to indicate when they did not know the required worker traits. All students, regardless of their academic achievement, social status, and formulation or nonformulation of future plans, had a greater knowledge of low-level occupations than of high-level occupations. Personal experiences were positively related to the knowledge that students had of occupations.

288 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS Otto, Luther B., Vaughn R. A. Call, and Kenneth I. Spenner 1979 Design for a Study of Entry into Careers. Boys Town, Neb.: Center for the Study of Youth Development. This paper describes an ongoing program of research that is being conducted at the Boys Town Center for the Study of Youth Development, investigating the process by which individuals gain access to careers. Rather than focusing on a single phase of analysis, this research is organized around both structural and individual-level explanations of careers. Initial research involves the empirical construction of multidimensional career lines. For each career line, estimates of six work role features for each job point in the line were produced: earnings, employment stability, complexity of work, routinization, and closeness of supervision. The GED, svP, abilities, temperaments, and working conditions measures of the third edition DOT were used in these estimates. The results of these analyses serve as major dependent variables for the second phase of the research program, which investigates how individuals gain access to careers. Pratzner, F. C., and R. W. Stump 1977 Report on a Project to Study Occupational Change and Transferable Skills. Unpublished paper, Center for Vocational Education, Ohio State University. The paper describes a project being conducted by the Center for Vocational Education, whose purpose is to explore the notion of transferable skills. In the first section, concerned with identifying the individual skills and abilities that are considered to be transferable from one occupation to another, systems of occupational classification and analysis are reviewed, including Miller's (1971b) work on the level of GED required for specific jobs and the DOT itself. The authors caution users of the DOT'S GED information, questioning its reliability and validity. The second section seeks to identify ways in which occupational change could be studied. Several approaches to job analysis are described, three of which are employed in the DOT: worker traits, socioeconomic class, and work environment. The paper concludes with recommendations on how educational and training institutions are or could be developing individual capabilities in transferable skills. Prediger, Dale J. 1976 World of Work Map for career exploration. Vocational Guidance Quarterly 24(March):198-208. This article describes the development, characteristics, and use of the World of Work Map and the associated American College Testing Program Occupational Classification System (ACT-OCS). All third edition DOT occupations were used as primary units of analysis in developing the classification system of 6 job clusters, 25 job families, and 3 levels of required preparation. The classification is centered on two work task dimensions: people-things and data-ideas. These dimensions are similar to the DOT'S worker functions; however, Prediger's analysis of the worker traits and worker functions reveals a strong negative correlation between data and ideas, indicating that these foci of work, treated as one variable in the DOT, are

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 289 actually two distinct worker functions. The allocation of occupations to the three job preparation categories was based on the DOT'S SVP ratings. The author describes how the map and ACT-OCS can provide persons at an early stage of career planning with an overview of the world of work and to help them identify personally relevant occupational options. Remenyi, Andrew G., and Barry F. Fraser 1977 Effects of occupational information on occupational perceptions. Journal of Vocational Behavior 10(February):53-68. Extending Osipow's (1962) study of the effects of occupational information on occupational perceptions, a sample of 173 subjects consisting of school students, university students, and teachers provided ratings on the semantic differential for each of nine jobs, in the absence and in the presence of occupational descriptions. These descriptions were taken from the DOT with some rewording and abbrevia- tion. In general, the addition of occupational information to the occupational titles raised the subjects' ratings of the occupations. In addition, school students held more favorable job perceptions than university students and teachers. Roomkin, Myron, and Gerald G. Somers 1974 The wage benefits of alternative sources of skill development. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 27(January):228-241. Using questionnaire data supplied by employees of a machine tool company, the authors estimated the impact on wages of pre-employment training and related experience and compared these results with the wage effects of on-thejob training and internal mobility after employment. Prior employment experience in a similar job was the most common source of worker skills prior to present employment. A similar occupation was defined as one whose first two digits in the third edition DOT code matched those of the first job held at the company under study and was of the same general level of skill requirement (i.e., skilled, semiskilled, or unskilled). Roomkin and Somers conclude that the internal practices of job promotion and training made greater contributions to the earnings of most blue- collar workers than the skill and knowledge acquired by these workers before joining the firm studied. Rosen, Stuart D., Darwin D. Hendel, David J. Weiss, Rene V. Dawis, and Lloyd H. Lofquist 1972 Occupational Reinforcer Patterns. Volume 2. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Department of Psychology, Vocational Psychology Research. Occupational Reinforcer Patterns (ORP'S) for 67 occupations are presented alphabetically, using third edition DOT titles (see Borgen et al., 1972~. These additional ORP'S are based on the combined Minnesota Job Description Question- naire ratings of supervisors and/or employees. The ORP'S for 12 occupational clusters, intercorrelations of the 148 ORP'S, and a table listing occupations according to reinforcement scale value by scale are also presented.

290 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS Ruchlin, Hirsch S. 1971 Education as a labor market variable. Industrial Relations 10~0eto- ber):287-303. This study examined the role of education as a labor market variable by comparing employers' education requirements (EER) for particular jobs with the third edition DOT'S GED and svP ratings. Occupations from all major DOT categories were used except professional, managerial, and unskilled occupations. The authors used two different methods for converting GED ratings into equivalent years of schooling (see Berg (1970) and Eekhaus (1964) in this bibliography). Results showed that the average employers' estimates of educational requirements exceed the GED estimates for the clerical and sales groups and to a degree the service group, while the reverse was true for skilled and semiskilled occupations. Ruchlin, Hirsch S. 1972 The credentializing role of education. Education Forum 36(March):327- 334. Ruchlin compared the third edition DOT'S GED and svP requirements with employers' estimates for 1,345 jobs. His methods for converting the two DOT scales into year equivalents were unspecified. Results indicated that employers' estimates exceeded the DOT estimates in the Clerical and sales groups and to a degree in the service group, while the reverse was true for skilled and semiskilled occupations. Ruchlin interprets his results as supporting the eredentializing and screening-out role of education requirements and discusses implications for public policy. Rumberger, Russell W. 1980 The economic decline of college graduates: Fact or fallacy? Journal of Human Resources 15(Winter):99-113. This study examined the economic position of college graduates, as measured by relative earnings, between 1969 and 1975 as well as the absolute occupational position of graduates, as measured by the degree of utilization of skills. The educational attainments of workers were compared with the third edition DOT'S GED requirements for the jobs they held. Results indicated that in general, the earnings of college graduates did not decline in relation to high school graduates between 1969 and 1975. However, it was found that overedueation is widespread throughout the labor market, affecting high school as well as college graduates. The evidence suggests that the occupational position of college graduates relative to high school graduates declined, both absolutely and relatively, between 1969 and 1975. Sainty, Geoffrey E. 1974 A validation of the worker trait groups in the DOT. Journal of Vocational Behavior 5(August):173-176. An empirical validation of the 114 worker trait groups of the third edition DOT was performed by comparing the factor structure of the worker trait components of the

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 291 114 worker trait groups with the factor structure of a random sample of 800 of the 4,000 jobs used as the basis for the third edition DOT. Six factors were compared, and cosines between .8997 and .9657 were obtained on the matched factors. Sattler, Jerome M., and Nancy E. Anderson 1973 The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Stanford-Binet, and the Modified Stanford-Binet with normal and cerebral palsied preschool children. JournalofSpecialEducation 7(Summer):119-123. This study was designed to determine the validity of two tests of intelligence the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Modified (SB Modified~by comparing them with the standard Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SB) in normal and cerebral palsied populations. The third edition DOT was used to determine the socioeconomic status of subjects. The significant correlations found between the PPVT and SB generally agree with those reported in the literature. Both seem to be useful instruments for assessing the intellectual ability of both normal and cerebral palsied preschool children. However, as often reported, socioeconomic status was positively correlated with lo. Schilling, R. S. F., A. D. Letal, S. L. Hui, G. J. Beck, J. B. Schoenberg, and A. Bouhuys 1977 Lung function, respiratory disease and smoking in families. Amerian Journal of Epidemiology 106~0ctober):27~283. Respiratory symptoms, disease, and lung function were studied in 376 families with 816 children. Socioeconomic class was determined by classifying the father's occupation into one of eight groups based on the third edition DOT. Socioeconomic class was not found to be a factor in offspring's illness, nor was parental smoking. There was no evidence that passive smoking affected either lung function or symptoms of adults, and no association between prevalence of self-reported cough and/or phlegm in parents and their children was found. However, there was a highly significant association between the prevalence of wheeze in parents and their younger children. Scoville, James G. 1965 The development and relevance of U.S. occupational data. Industrial and Labor Relations Review l9~0ctober):7~79. Various types of occupational classification systems are examined, and the development of American occupational statistics is discussed. Scoville briefly outlines the development of the second edition DOT and describes the content and organization of the then forthcoming third edition, including the worker function data (level of involvement with data, people, and things). He points out that whereas the purpose of the first and second editions was to show the type of work done, the new system of the third edition intends to correlate worker orientations and job characteristics more easily and thoroughly. The author concludes with a critique of U.S. Census data, arguing that the data were not designed and are not useful to answer the questions about the kinds and nature of jobs in our economy,

292 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS that the distribution of the detailed data among the census groups is weak and inconsistent, and that the basic detailed figures themselves are very weak. Scoville, James G. 1965 Making occupational statistics more relevant. In American Statistical Association, Proceedings of the Business and Economic Statistics Section. Washington, D.C.: American Statistical Association. The paper discusses U.S. Census data, the need for a more relevant conceptual framework, and the need for statistical improvement in occupational research. Scoville cites the DOT as "the only comprehensive attempt at describing job requirements or some aspects of job content for a large and diverse sample of jobs which has so far been published." However, he criticizes the worker trait groups and their use by the Employment Service as well as the functional job analysis system (relationship to data, people, and things). Scoville, James G. 1966 Education and training requirements for occupations. Review of Econom- ics and Statistics 48(November):387-394. The study used data on GED and svP requirements found in Estimates of Worker Traits Requirements for 4,000 Jobs as Defined in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. These 4,000 jobs were drawn from the second edition DOT and then allocated among the 221 major occupational groups of the 1950 Census. The education and training data by occupation were presented, and the quality of the data was examined. In a large number of cases the median attainment did not match the estimated requirements, calling into question the basic data or the author's estimating procedure. Scoville, James G. 1969 Concepts and Measurements for Manpower and Occupational Analysis. Washington, D.C.: Office of Manpower Research, U.S. Department of Labor. Following a discussion of current uses of occupational data, the author reviews the current schemes of occupational classification and analysis and suggests reforms. In this section he describes the history and content of the third edition DOT in detail. He criticizes the DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS scales, noting that the concept of responsibility is completely omitted and that the scheme does not reflect important interactions between the three components. He criticizes the GED scale for its lack of an accepted conversion to year equivalents and the svP scale as being unclear in practical use. Scoville quotes employers' criticisms of the DOT as a useful set of job titles and definitions. The author presents an economic theory of jobs and concludes with summary recommendations for a system of occupational data collection.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses Scoville, James G. 293 1969 The Job Content of the U.S. Economy 194~1970. New York: McGraw- Hill. This book describes an exploratory study of long-term changes in the job content of the American economy using census data for 194(}1960 and estimates for 1970. Scoville criticizes the census data and the DOT, particularly the DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS scales, as being inadequate for the purposes of job analysis. Using a stepwise regression, he estimated the "market price" of the DOT'S GED, numerical, spatial perception, and color discrimination abilities. The author also used the GED and svP scales to assess changes in education requirements for job families. Finally, estimated GED and svP requirements for selected census occupations are presented in Appendix 1 (originally published in 1966~. Seggar, John F., and Penny Wheeler 1973 World of work on TV: Ethnic and sex representation in TV drama. Journal of Broadcasting 17(Spring):201-214. This study analyzed the portrayal of minorities on TV in 1971. The major purpose was to examine TV dramas and analyze the extent to which minorities were represented and to compare their portrayals with those of white Americans. The third edition DOT was used to classify characters' jobs. The following results were found: there was an overrepresentation of all groups in the professional and managerial fields; the labor market of television most closely resembles the actual labor market only in the field of farmers and farm managers; there was an underrepresentation of all groups in occupations with little prestige, except in the service area; and minorities, more so than American whites, were both concentrat- ed in fields of personal service and more likely to suffer from stereotyped images. Seybolt, John W., and Leopold Gruenfeld 1976 The discriminant validity of work alienation and work satisfaction measures. Journal of Occupational Psychology 49(December): 193-202. A sample of 1,700 county and municipal workers was divided into four major occupational categories according to the DOT. Operational measures of the attitudes of work alienation and work satisfaction were examined to determine if in fact they are separate attitudes or merely different terms for the same construct. The results revealed that the measures of the two attitudes are extremely similar. In fact, they appeared to be differentially related only to level of formal education, and this was true only for certain occupational levels. Shartle, Carroll L. 1964 Occupational analysis, worker characteristics, and occupational clas- sification systems. Pp. 285-309 in H. Borow, ea., Man in a World at Work. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. In his review of methods of occupational analysis, Shartle mentions the Employ- ment Service job analysis used in developing the DOT as the largest program of its

294 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS kind. He describes the DOT as a classification system based on job content as well as worker characteristics, which also reflects socioeconomic levels as part of its structure. The structure of the third edition DOT is examined at length as an example of occupational classification. The article concludes with a brief discussion of the limitations of functional occupational classification systems: certain employee entrance standards may reflect unseen yet actual restrictive requirements of race, age, sex, and social conformity; job requirements are flexible and relative to labor supply and geographic location; rapid technological changes may quickly render published standards obsolete; and finally, occupational classification systems based on worker characteristics often overemphasize entrance require- ments. Sjogren, Douglas 1977 Occupationally-Transferable Skills and Characteristics: Review of Litera ture and Research. Information Series No. 105. Columbus: Ohio State University, Center for Vocational Education. This paper synthesizes research and literature on the nature of occupationally transferable skills, specifically to identify skills that seem to be highly transferable, in the sense of being general to a number of occupations. The author speculates about characteristics of skills that are generalizable or transferable. Some implications regarding educational programs, hiring and employment search practices, and research are drawn. The author relied most heavily on the third edition DOT'S worker trait and worker function scales in his analyses. Snyder, David, and Paula M. Hudis 1979 The sex differential in earnings: A further reappraisal. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 32(April):378-374. In this review of an earlier article, Snyder and Hudis examine the association between occupational sex composition and gender-specific earnings. Using 1960 and 1970 Census data, the authors regress earnings on percentage female, median education, and several additional occupational characteristics. The third edition DOT variable svP (specific vocational preparation) is employed to measure the number of years of training required to develop the skills needed for average performance in a given occupation. The svP score discriminates at least roughly among specific training times necessary for incumbency in an occupation and is considered conceptually distinct from the "general" skills implicit in the median education measure. The analysis shows that gender composition of occupations is an important determinant of women's lower earnings but is less important than sex differences in economic returns to education, training, etc. Snyder, David, Mark D. Hayward, and Paula M. Hudis 1978 The location of change in sexual structure of occupations, 1950-1970: Insights from labor market segmentation theory. American Journal of Sociology 84(November):70~717.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 295 To investigate changes in the sex composition of occupations between 1950 and 1970, the detailed U.S. Census occupations for 1950, 1960, and 1970 were examined for changes in percentage female, weighted averages of gender-specific annual income, median education, percentage full time and percentage full year. The third edition DOT'S SVP measure was also used. The assumption that changes in concentrations of female workers are negatively related to occupational desirability was not supported. Occupations rated low on income, education, svP, and percentage full time/full year showed greater variability in percentage female change than occupations rated high on these measures. Finally, the results seriously challenge the sex labeling/tipping effect expectation that occupations filled mainly by women are generally more likely to experience increases in concentrations of women. These findings support a dual labor market interpreta- tion of changes in occupational sexual structure. Spaeth, Joe L. 1979 Vertical differentiation among occupations. American Sociological Review 44~0ctober):74~762. This paper proposes a theory of vertical occupational differentiation based on the role activities of occupational incumbents. Two dimensions of vertical differentiation, authority and complexity, are derived from the division of labor. Spaeth used the third edition DOT'S DATA, GED, and svP ratings to assess complexity of work and the PEOPLE ratings as an indicator of authority. The DOT'S THINGS ratings were not used because the author felt they do not pertain to the full range of occupations but specifically to blue-collar jobs. These concepts are shown to differ from occupational prestige by estimating confirmatory factor models that contain indicators of authority, complexity, and prestige. Results of the analysis are used to suggest resolutions for some anomalous findings of research on the socioeconomic achievement process. Spenner, Kenneth I. 1977 From Generation to Generation: The Transmission of Occupation. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, Madison. In an effort to identify the aspects of occupations that are transmitted and the way in which these components are transmitted to the occupational aspirations and early occupational attainments of sons and daughters, Spenner developed a set of occupation-specific indicators for role components of the detailed 1960 and 1970 Census occupational categories. Among the variables used in the study were the DOT'S SVP, GED, worker functions (DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS variables), and temperament variables 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8. In examining the validity of these measures, the author concludes that the DOT variables are adequate for his study, but further consideration of the issues of reliability and validity are in order. Spenner's main finding for the structure of role transmission shows that general socioeconomic components and several complexity aspects of work govern the father-son relationship but not the mother-daughter or mother-son relationships, nor do they govern role transmission involving a son's aspirations.

296 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS Spenner, Kenneth I. 1979 Temporal changes in work content. American Sociological Review 44(December) :968-975. In examining the temporal changes in occupational skill requirements over the course of this century, researchers have focused on (1) change in the marginal distribution of workers to jobs and (2) actual change in the content of jobs. Recent research regarding the first type of change in the American economy suggests a modest skill downgrading since 1900. When the data from the third and fourth edition DOT are used for a sample of jobs, new evidence presented shows small variations for the second type of change for the last 10-12 years. There has been, if anything, a slight upgrading in skill requirements that occurs in a number of sectors of the labor force. Spenner, Kenneth I. 1980 Occupational characteristics and classification systems: new uses of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles in social research. Sociological Methods and Research 9(November). The paper describes the occupational characteristics used in the DOT and U.S. Census classification systems and reports on several characteristics that have recently been estimated for detailed 1960 and 1970 Census occupations. The report includes information on how the measures were generated, some evidence on their validity compared with corresponding individual-level measures, and descriptive statistics for the U.S. labor force. Also, the vector of job characteristics is used to assess the measurement slippage involved in moving between the DOT and the 1970 Census classification. Spenner, Kenneth I. 1981 Occupations, role characteristics and intergenerational transmission. Sociology of Work and Occupations 8(May). In a study examining the intergenerational covariation in occupational roles the author drew on the DOT'S PEOPLE and THINGS variables and svP ratings. Specific indicators for "routinization," "closeness of supervision," and "uncertainty" were taken from the temperaments variables of the DOT. Spenner, Kenneth I., Luther B. Otto, and Vaughn R. A. Call 1980 Estimates of Third Edition DOT Job Characteristics for 1970 Census Occupation-Industry Categories. Boys Town Center, Omaha, Nebraska, 68010. The computer file described in this paper contains weighted estimates of all occupation-related characteristics for 595 1970 Census occupation-industry catego- ries. The authors drew on the DOT'S worker function variables, GED, SVP, aptitudes, interests, temperaments, physical demands, and working conditions.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 297 Spergel, Philip 1970 Vocational evaluation: Research and implications for maximizing human potential. Journal of Rehabilitation 36(January-February):2 1-24. The author states that although the process of work evaluation may continue to be an art, the introduction of validity testing, through well-designed research projects using the technology of programmed, computerized data analysis, should be encouraged. As an example he describes his work on relating work samples with the third edition DOT'S worker trait group arrangements and his attempts to validate the results empirically. Sterne, David M. 1974 The Kuder oils and rankings of vocational preference. Educational and Psychological Measurement 34(Spring):63-68. Kuder Occupational Interest Survey scores of hospitalized veterans were compared with their preferential rankings of the 77 ois occupations. These occupations were presented on cards accompanied by an abbreviated version of the DOT title. Low intercorrelation was found, though test-retest reliabilities were .93 and .76, respectively. The oils responses tended to resemble those of construction and skilled trades workers. Professional occupations related to construction and skilled trades received the highest rankings. Stevenson, Mary 1973 Women's wages and job segregation. Politics and Society (Fall):83-96. This article points to the dearth of economic analysis on the topic of discrimination against women and argues that women's inferior economic position may result from a highly segregated occupational structure. By using the third edition DOT'S GED and svP scales, occupational categories were ranked from highest to lowest according to the amount of education and training required. Results indicate that men are found in higher occupational groups than women with the same educational attainment and that men receive disproportionately higher wages than women in the same occupational group. Stevenson also cites evidence to support the "crowding hypothesis": women tend to be concentrated in a few limited occupations within an occupational group, while men are more evenly distributed. Thus women do not appear to have the same kind of access to all occupations that men do. Finally, men and women within an occupational group are segregated not only by occupation but also by industry. Stevenson, Mary 1974 Determinants of Low Wages for Women Workers. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Stevenson reviews the literature on working women, job segregation, and wage differentials and presents a model of occupational wage determination. Using the third edition DOT'S GED and svP scales, "occlevels," or occupational categories, were ranked from highest to lowest according to the amount of education and

298 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS training required. Stevenson found that (1) within occlevels, women's rate of return on investment in education is lower than that of men, (2) within occlevels, women are crowded into fewer distinct occupations than men, and specifically in those occupations with the lowest wages in the occlevel, and (3) within occlevels, men nr1 women are segregated by industry as well as occupation. _ _ · · ~ O O Stolzenberg, Ross M. 1975 Occupations, labor markets and the process of wage attainment. American Sociological Review 40~0ctober):645-665. This study attempts to combine sociological models of earnings with economic models of earnings as well as concepts and findings from the sociology of occupations and professions. Drawing on U.S. Census and BES data as well as two variables from the third edition DOT, Stolzenberg examined, among other things, the impact of svP on earnings and prestige and the effects of physical demands on the age-wage relationship. The author concludes (1) that labor markets tend to be fragmented along occupational lines, (2) that the processes governing wage attainment vary from one occupation to another, and (3) that occupational differences in these processes can be predicted from and explained in terms of the forces that lead to occupational segmentation of labor markets. Studdiford, Walter S. 1951 A functional system of occupational classification. Occupations (Octo- ber):37-42. Studdiford recounts the history of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles and describes the work conducted on an innovative classification system for the third edition. This functional system of occupational classification is composed of eight classification components: work done, knowledge and abilities, aptitudes, physical demands, temperaments, working conditions, industry, and training time. The author details the nature of each of the components and concludes with a brief discussion of future areas of study. Studdiford, Walter S. 1953 New occupational classification structure. Employment Security Review 20(September):36-39. The aims and philosophy of the classification system developed for the third edition DOT are discussed. Studdiford gives an example to illustrate how the worker traits of 4,000 jobs are analyzed and coded. He then answers frequently asked questions about the structure, method, and development of the classification system. Stump, Robert S. 1976 Occupational Mobility and Career Planning: What is Needed? Paper presented at the Second Career Education National Forum, Washington, D.C., February.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 299 Following a brief review of occupational mobility studies, Stump describes alternative views of occupations, including the third edition DOT'S worker trait groups and functional job analysis (involvement with data, people, and things). He suggests work toward a clearer identification of the elements in jobs and an individual's abilities that make occupational changes happen and a more creative approach to job mobility studies. Finally, he outlines a project being conducted by the Center for Vocational Skills designed to explore the issue of transferable skills. Temme, Lloyd V. 1975 Occupation: Meanings and Measures. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc. Drawing from economic, psychological, and sociological theories of occupations, Temme has developed a "3R" model to conceptualize career processes and achievements. The 3R model provides equal emphasis on routines, or type of work, requisites, and rewards (i.e., self-direction, prestige, and earnings). Measurement strategies and some practical problems encountered in using unwieldy classification systems are described, and techniques for constructing measures of each dimension of the 3R model are presented. The DOT and its worker traits and worker functions are reviewed. Temme developed a new set of measures of occupational characteris- tics for occupations used in both the 1960 and 1970 Census classifications. The new measures include the DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS scales and the GED and svP scales from the third edition DOT. Time Share Corporation 1976 The Guidance Information System (GIS) Guide. West Hartford, Conn.: Houghton Mifflin Company. The Guidance Information System (GIS) iS a computer-based system that provides information on civilian and military occupations, 4-year and 2-year colleges, graduate schools, and sources of scholarships and financial aid. The GIS'S Occupational Information File (occu) and Armed Services Occupational Informa- tion (ASOC) make use of the DOT'S occupational families, codes, definitions, and related job titles. An analysis of DOT interests, aptitudes, physical demands, and working conditions aids clients in choosing appropriate occupational categories. Tinsley, Howard E. A., and Suzanne M. Gaughan 1975 A cross-sectional analysis of the impact of rehabilitation counseling. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 1 8(March): 147-153. Data obtained from handicap rehabilitation clients were analyzed to determine the immediate and long-term impact of rehabilitation counseling on the work adjustment of the recipients. Respondents' occupations were assigned DOT codes and grouped according to the first digit. Comparison (third edition) of the clients' work adjustment before and after rehabilitation counseling revealed an increase in the employment rate subsequent to counseling and a shift toward employment in occupations that make fewer physical demands on the worker. The percentage of persons employed in professional-managerial and clerical-sales occupations in

300 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS creased from referral to closure, while decreases were observed in miscellaneous and fishing, farming, forestry, and related occupations for the same time period. Further analysis indicated that rehabilitation counseling has a lasting impact on the work adjustment of the client. Tinsley, Howard E. A., and David J. Weiss 1974 A multivariate investigation of the reinforcer structure of occupations. Journal of Vocational Behavior 4(January):97-11 3. Earlier research based on 81 Occupational Reinforcer Patterns (ORP'S) suggested a nine-category classification of occupations. The present research, based on 148 ORP'S, investigated the ability of that classificatory system to assimilate new information. Occupations in each first-digit DOT code group were sampled in proportion to the number of workers in the United States employed in those occupations, and this process yielded a sample representative of the population of occupations available. Cluster analysis of the 148 ORP'S produced an eight-category classification of occupations in which five of the original occupational clusters appeared virtually unchanged and the other four were combined into two clusters. One new cluster was identified. The factor structure of these occupational reinforcers was also examined. Touliatos, John, Byron W. Lindholm, and Amy Rich 1978 Influence of family background on scholastic achievement. Journal of Experimental Education 46(Spring):22-27. The relationship between family background and achievement in school was examined for the two sexes and for social classes. Data were obtained from the cumulative folders of white children in grades 3 through 6. Measures of scholastic achievement were the California Achievement Tests. Social class was defined in terms of father's employment according to the classification system of the DOT. Class I included professional and technical workers, managers, officials, and proprietors; class II was composed of clerical and sales workers; class III was composed of craftsmen and operatives; and class IV was composed of laborers, service workers, and the unemployed. Scholastic achievement was highest for girls and for children living with both parents, for those from smaller families, and for those in the first-born or last-born positions. Interactions with social class are discussed. Treiman, Donald J. 1977 Occupational Prestige in Comparative Perspective. New York: Academic Press. In chapter 9 the author recommends that the Dictionary of Occupational Titles be employed in coding foreign occupational data to the Standard International Occupational Prestige Scale. The occupational definitions provided in the DOT are particularly helpful in determining the appropriate prestige coding when the occupational title is not readily found in the Standard Scale's alphabetical index or in the International Standard Classification of Occupations discos.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses 301 Ullman, Charles A. 1971 Measures of learning disability for different purposes. Journal of Learning Disabilities 4(April): 10-16. There is a popular preference for intensive, norm-referenced measures, such as age scores and grade scores, in the field of learning disabilities. However, for systematic study, particularly if factors relating to growth are involved, some type of equal- interval measure is preferable to measures using intervals of variable size. The author believes that the development of techniques of absolute measurement may provide the advantages of both equal-interval measures and criterion-based standards. Ullman notes that two of the third edition DOT'S features are of special relevance for educational and vocational guidance of persons with learning disabilities: the GED scale and the occupational aptitude patterns. Viernstein, Mary Cowan 1972 The extension of Holland's occupational classification to all occupations in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Journal of Vocational Behavior 2(April): 107-121. Two methods are presented for extending Holland's occupational classification to include all occupations in the third edition DOT. They enable translation from any DOT code into the corresponding Holland occupational code. Holland's system is based on a theory of personality types and is organized into six major categories. Wallbrown, Fred H., and Charles B. Huelsman, Jr. 1975 The validity of the Wallach-Kogan creativity operations for inner-city children in two areas of visual art. Journal of Personality 43(March): 109- 126. The validity of the Wallach-Kogan (W-K) creativity operation was investigated for 73 third and fourth grade children in an inner-city school. The third edition DOT was used to code the occupational status of fathers. Two crayon drawings and clay products were collected from each child and rated by four judges on originality and effectiveness of expression. A satisfactory degree of concordance was obtained among judges' ratings for both dimensions of clay products but not for the crayon drawings. Analysis yielded strong support for the validity of the work operations. A negative relationship was evident between birth order and all five W-K subtests as well as both criterion dimensions for clay products. Finally, the authors' assertion that their creativity operations define a pervasive dimension with discriminant validity from general intelligence is confirmed. Walls, Richard T., M. S. Tseng, and William D. Ellis 1977 Time and money for vocational rehabilitation of clients with psychotic and psychoneurotic disabilities. Journal of Occupational Psychology 50(Spring):37 44. "Rehabilitated" and "unrehabilitated" psychotic and-psychoneurotic clients were compared in connection with two time variables (months in the rehabilitation

302 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS process and training) and two cost variables (dollars for all services and for facilities). Occupations at closure were assigned third edition DOT codes and grouped according to the first digit. No differences were found between clinical groups on such outcome variables as work status, occupational level, or weekly earnings at closure. As compared to psychotics, psychoneurotics tended to require more time in vocational rehabilitation process and training and less money for rehabilitation facilities. Rehabilitated clients were found to be in the vocational rehabilitation process for less time than unrehabilitated clients. Walther, Regis S. 1960 The Functional Occupational Classification Project: A critical appraisal. Personnel and Guidance Journal 38(May):698-706. Walther describes the Functional Occupational Classification Project (FOCP) and his efforts to test the usefulness of the classification system. He applied it first to a study made of clerical jobs in the Foreign Service and then to two intensive studies of the job of business executives. He concludes that there are many elements influencing the world of work, such as attitudes, values, energy, types of anxiety, and role requirements, which are not included in the FOCP. In examining the theoretical background of and support for the component parts of the FOCP the author questions the methodology and validity of Cottle's work, on which the interests and aptitudes dimensions are based. He further suggests that rather than measure GED, it would be more useful to examine the different ways in which individuals use their intellect. Finally, in evaluating the worker function variables (DATA, PEOPLE, and THINGS), Walther finds the hierarchy of function levels artificial and unrealistic. In closing he remarks that the FOCP has made a substantial contribution to the field by emphasizing the psychological dimensions not usually considered in conventional job analyses but that its shortcomings and limitations warrant serious attention. Walther, Regis H. 1964 The Psychological Dimensions of Work: An Experimental Taxonomy of Occupations. Washington, D.C.: George Washington University, Center for the Behavioral Sciences. This paper proposes an experimental taxonomy of occupations, the Job Analysis and Interest Measurement (IAIM), which is based on psychological dimensions of work. It began by evaluating the degree of success achieved by tests of ability, interests,- and personality in predicting job satisfaction or performance or in distinguishing among occupations. An evaluation was also made of various models for classifying occupations and of factor analyses of ability, interests, and personality tests that have been shown to have substantial empirical validation. The third edition DOT'S interest and temperament scales were among those examined. The author concludes that the analysis of the job and the individual should be focused on those stable differences among individuals, functioning in psychologi- cally equivalent job situations, that are related to differences in job performance and satisfaction. The author applies the JAIM experimentally to various samples and makes proposals for further research.

Annotated Bibliography of Research Uses Weagraff, Patrick J. 303 1974 The cluster concept: Development of curricular materials for the public service occupations cluster. Journal of Research and Development in Education 7(Spring):45-54. The advantages and disadvantages of career cluster systems are discussed. An overview of past cluster systems is presented. The author states that ideally, a cluster scheme should encompass all or most of the jobs listed in the DOT. He then describes a public service cluster analysis undertaken by the California State Department of Education and the instructional materials that were produced. Wehrly, Beatrice L. 1973 Children's occupational knowledge. Vocational Guidance Quarterly 22(December): 12~129. School children, 386 fourth, sixth, and eighth graders, took a paper and pencil test to measure their knowledge of 15 occupations. The test was scored using a key developed from information from the Occupational Outlook Handbook and the third edition DOT. Data were collected on parents' occupations, lo, reading achievement, sex, and age. Reading achievement, grade in school, and age all showed a significant positive relationship with the measure of occupational knowledge; lo and parents' socioeconomic status, however, were not correlated with performance on the occupational test. Westbrook, Bert W., and Joseph W. Parry-Hill, Jr. 1973 The measurement of cognitive vocational maturity. Journal of Vocational Behavior 3(July):239-252. This report describes the development of an instrument to measure an individual's level of cognitive vocational maturity in six areas: fields of work, job selection, work conditions, education required, attributes required, and duties. By using the third edition DOT and the Occupational Outlook Handbook as sources of information about the characteristics and requirements of occupations, multiple- choice items were constructed for each of the selected occupations. Reliability estimates for the subtests as well as criterion-related and construct validity data are presented. It was found that pupils whose vocational choices were in agreement with their field of interest and their ability level scored higher on all subtests than did pupils whose choices agreed with neither their interests nor their ability level. Witt, Mary, and Patricia K. Naherny 1975 Women's Work Up from .878. Report on the DOT Research Project. Madison: University of Wisconsin Extension, Women's Education Resources. This report (1) determines via established DOT job analysis procedures the adequacy of the DOT'S treatment of women's work, particularly as it relates to jobs in the service category, (2) identifies problems in DOT job analysis theory responsible for documented instances of sex discrimination, and (3) develops

304 WORK, JOBS, AND OCCUPATIONS accurate job descriptions and recommendations to ensure the fair and equitable disposition of women's work in future editions of the DOT. Woods, Ernest, Jr., and Jules M. Zimmer 1976 Racial effects in counseling-like interviews: An experimental analogue. Journal of Counseling Psychology 23(November):527-53 1. This study examined racial experimenter effects in counseling-like interviews employing the verbal operant-conditioning paradigm. The general objective was to determine whether significant differences in the "conditionability" of black and white students would be found when the verbal reinforcement was provided by black and white experimenters. Subjects' socioeconomic level was determined by their fathers' occupation, which were rated high or low on the basis of DOT definitions. (There is no further elaboration as to how this was done.) No significant differences were found in the experimenter-subject racial interaction.

Next: APPENDIX D Selected Materials Prepared by the Division of Occupational Analysis, U.S. Employment Service »
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Various editions of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles have served as the Employment Service's basic tool for matching workers and jobs. The Dictionary of Occupational Titles has also played an important role in establishing skill and training requirements and developing Employment Service testing batteries for specific occupations. However, the role of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles has been called into question as a result of planned changes in the operation of the Employment Service.

A plan to automate the operations of Employment Service offices using a descriptive system of occupational keywords rather than occupational titles has led to a claim that a dictionary of occupational titles and the occupational research program that produces it are outmoded. Since the automated keyword system does not rely explicitly on defined occupational titles, it is claimed that the new system would reduce costs by eliminating the need for a research program to supply the occupational definitions.

In light of these considerations, the present volume evaluates the future need for the Dictionary of Occupational Titles.

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