NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committees responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
Support for this project was provided by Contract NASW 96013 between the National Academy of Sciences and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsor.
Copies of this report are available free of charge from:
Space Studies Board
National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20418
Copyright 1999 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Institute of Medicine
National Research Council
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
SPACE RESEARCH COMMITTEE
A. NISHIDA,
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science,
Chair
H. HIRABAYASHI,
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
S. IKEUCHI,
Nagoya University
M. KATO,
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
Y. KAWASAKI,
Mitsubishi Kasei Institute of Life Sciences
Y. KONDO,
Solar Terrestrial Environment Laboratory, Nagoya University
T. KOSUGI,
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
K. MAKISHIMA,
University of Tokyo
Y. MATOGAWA,
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
S. MIURA,
National Space Development Agency
A. MORIOKA,
Tohoku University
H. MURAKAMI,
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
F. NAGASE,
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
E. SAGAWA,
Communications Research Laboratory
NASUO SATO,
National Institute of Polar Research
NOBUO SATO,
Japan Meteorological Agency
S. TANAKA,
Remote Sensing Technology Center
T. TSUDA,
Kyoto University
K. TSURUDA,
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
S. WATANABE,
Daido Industrial College
T. YAMAMOTO,
Nagoya University
K. YAMISHITA,
Nagoya University
EUROPEAN SPACE SCIENCE COMMITTEE
JOHN LEONARD CULHANE,
Mullard Space Science Laboratory, London, United Kingdom,
Chair
European Earth Observation Panel
ROBERT J. GURNEY,
University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom,
Chair
WERNER ALPERS,
Institut für Meereskunde, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
ANNY CAZENAVE,
Laboratoire en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiale (LEGOS), Toulouse, France
MARIE-LISE CHANIN,
Stratospheric Processes and Their Role in Climate (SPARC) Office, Verrières, France
HANS SÜNKEL,
Technische Universität Graz, Graz, Austria
European Space Physical Science Panel
JOHAN A.M. BLEEKER,
Institute for Space Research, Space Research Organization Netherlands-Utrecht, The Netherlands,
Chair
JOHN LEONARD CULHANE,
Mullard Space Science Laboratory, London, United Kingdom
ALVARO GIMÉNEZ,
L.A.E.F.F., Madrid, Spain
GERHARD HAERENDEL,
Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik, Garching, Germany
NIELS LUND,
Danish Space Research Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark
PHILIPPE MASSON,
Université de Paris Sud, Orsay, France
MARTIN J.L. TURNER,
University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
STEFANO VITALE,
Università di Trento, Trento, Italy
JOHN C. ZARNECKI,
University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom
ANDRZEJ ZDZIARSKI,
Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
European Microgravity Panel
JEAN-CLAUDE LEGROS,
Microgravity Research Center, ULB, Bruxelles, Belgium,
Chair
AUGUSTO COGOLI,
ETH Technopark, Zurik, Switzerland
JEAN-JACQUES FAVIER,
Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, Grenoble, France
GERDA HORNECK,
DLR, Institut für Luft und Raumfahrtmedizin, Köln, Germany
JEAN-CLAUDE WORMS, ESSC Executive Secretary,
ENSPS, Strasbourg, France
HANS U. KAROW, ESF Scientific Secretary,
Strasbourg, France
COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL SPACE PROGRAMS
EUGENE B. SKOLNIKOFF,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Chair
FRAN BAGENAL,
University of Colorado
LENNARD A. FISK,
University of Michigan
MARTIN A. GLICKSMAN,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
BILL GREEN, former member,
U.S. House of Representatives
JOHN P. HUGHES,
Rutgers University
ADRIAN LEBLANC,
Baylor College of Medicine
THOMAS R. LOVELAND,
USGS EROS Data Center
NORMAN P. NEUREITER,
Texas Instruments
(retired)
LOUIS J. LANZEROTTI,
Lucent Technologies
(ex officio)
Staff
PAMELA WHITNEY,
Study Director
CARMELA CHAMBERLAIN,
Senior Program Assistant
SPACE STUDIES BOARD
CLAUDE R. CANIZARES,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Chair
MARK R. ABBOTT,
regon State University
FRAN BAGENAL,
University of Colorado
DANIEL N. BAKER,
University of Colorado
ROBERT E. CLELAND,
University of Washington
MARILYN L. FOGEL,
Carnegie Institution of Washington
BILL GREEN, former member,
U.S. House of Representatives
JOHN H. HOPPS, JR.,
Morehouse College
CHRISTIAN J. JOHANNSEN,
Purdue University
RICHARD G. KRON,
University of Chicago
JONATHAN I. LUNINE,
University of Arizona
ROBERTA BALSTAD MILLER,
Columbia University
GARY J. OLSEN,
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
MARY JANE OSBORN,
University of Connecticut Health Center
GEORGE A. PAULIKAS,
The Aerospace Corporation
JOYCE E. PENNER,
University of Michigan
THOMAS A. PRINCE,
California Institute of Technology
PEDRO L. RUSTAN, JR.,
Ellipso Inc.
GEORGE L. SISCOE,
Boston University
EUGENE B. SKOLNIKOFF,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MITCHELL SOGIN,
Marine Biological Laboratory
NORMAN E. THAGARD,
Florida State University
ALAN M. TITLE,
Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center
RAYMOND VISKANTA,
Purdue University
PETER W. VOORHEES,
Northwestern University
JOHN A. WOOD,
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
JOSEPH K. ALEXANDER, Director
COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS
PETER M. BANKS,
Veridian ERIM International, Inc.,
Co-Chair
W. CARL LINEBERGER,
University of Colorado,
Co-Chair
WILLIAM F. BALLHAUS, JR.,
Lockheed Martin Corp.
SHIRLEY CHIANG,
University of California, Davis
MARSHALL H. COHEN,
California Institute of Technology
RONALD G. DOUGLAS,
Texas A&M University
SAMUEL H. FULLER,
Analog Devices, Inc.
JERRY P. GOLLUB,
Haverford College
MICHAEL F. GOODCHILD,
University of California, Santa Barbara
MARTHA P. HAYNES,
Cornell University
WESLEY T. HUNTRESS, JR.,
Carnegie Institution
CAROL M. JANTZEN,
Westinghouse Savannah River Company
PAUL G. KAMINSKI,
Technovation, Inc.
KENNETH H. KELLER,
University of Minnesota
JOHN R. KREICK,
Sanders, a Lockheed Martin Company
(retired)
MARSHA I. LESTER,
University of Pennsylvania
DUSA M. McDUFF,
State University of New York at Stony Brook
JANET L. NORWOOD,
U.S. Commissioner of Labor Statistics
retired)
M. ELISABETH PATÉ-CORNELL,
Stanford University
NICHOLAS P. SAMIOS,
Brookhaven National Laboratory
ROBERT J. SPINRAD,
Xerox PARC
(retired)
NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director
(through July 1999)
MYRON F. UMAN, Acting Executive Director
Acknowledgment of Reviewers
This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council's (NRC's) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the authors and the NRC in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The contents of the review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:
Roger R. Anderson, University of Iowa,
Peter M. Banks, Veridian ERIM International, Inc.,
Hugh S. Hudson, University of California, San Diego, and Solar Physics Research Corporation,
Chris J. Johannsen, Purdue University, and
Peter W. Voorhees, Northwestern University.
Although the individuals listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, responsibility for the final content of this report rests solely with the authoring task group and the NRC.