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Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
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Appendix CHarmful Properties of Biological Agents

WARFARE AGENTS

Bacteria

Bacteria are microscopic, one-celled, plant-like organisms that range from 0.1 to 10 microns in diameter. They can be classified by shape as bacilli (rod), cocci (spherical), and spirilla (spiral). Bacteria are widely distributed in nature and can grow on artificial materials in the absence of other living cells.

Among the bacteria that are considered the most likely candidates for use as biological warfare agents are Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), Vibrio cholera (cholera), Yersinia pestis (plague), Franciscella tularensis (tularemia [rabbit fever or deer-fly fever]), and Brucellosis suis (brucellosis or undulant fever). Many other species are less dramatic but still pathogenic, such as Salmonella typhimurium (gastroenteritis, known as food poisoning), Staphylococcus aureus, and Shingellar dysenteriae (dysentery). Some agents usually affect animals but can be transmitted to humans with severe effects. Examples include Burkhoderia mallei (glanders) and Burkhoderia pseudomallei (melioidosis).

Rickettsia

Rickettsia are intracellular microscopic organisms intermediate between bacteria and viruses. They are oblong and vary in size from 0.3 to

Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×

0.5 microns in length and 0.3 micron in width. Like viruses, rickettsia cannot reproduce outside of a living organism. Rickettsia that are likely candidates for warfare agents are Coxiella burnetti, which causes Q fever and a chronic endocarditis; Rickettsia prowasecki, the causative agent of epidemic typhus; and Rickettsia ricketsii, the causative agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Table C-1 provides a summary of the disease, likely transmission pathway, lethality, and infectivity associated with selected rickettsia agents.

Viruses

A virus is a microscopic organism consisting mainly of a nucleic acid in a protein coat. Viruses are shaped like rods or spheres and range in size from about 0.01 to 0.3 micron. Viruses cannot multiply on their own, but inside a living cell they become active organisms that can multiply. The viruses considered for potential use in warfare include the Ebola virus, Hanta virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, yellow fever virus, Rift Valley fever virus, the Junin virus (Argentine hemorrhagic fever), the variola virus (smallpox), and the Dengue fever virus. Table C-1 provides a summary of the disease, transmission, pathway, and lethality associated with selected viral agents. Infectivity is not currently available for most viruses. Many are transmitted by ticks and mosquitoes. Others are transferred by human contact.

Biological Toxins

Biological toxins are harmful chemical compounds produced by living organisms. Two toxins commonly associated with biological warfare are Botulinum and Clostridium perfringens. Botulinum, which is extremely potent, causes respiratory paralysis; the victim suffers from asphyxia. Clostridium perfiingens causes gas gangrene in which extremities "go necrotic" by slowly suffocating them. Table C-2 provides a summary of the sources, lethality, and required detection capability for selected toxins.

Genetically Altered Organisms

The last group of organisms that are used, or could be used, for warfare are genetically altered organisms. A group planning to develop a genetically altered organism would most likely aim for a more virulent or less treatable mutant of one of the agents described above. A toxin or substance created or acquired through recombinant technology would also be included in this category.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×

TABLE C-1 Exposure Factors for Selected Biological Warfare Agents

Agent

Disease

Transmission

Lethality

Infectivity

Required Detection Capabilitya

Bacteria

Bacillus anthracis

Anthrax

Spores in aerosol

High ~ 100%

10,000 organisms

5,000 org/m3 air

Vibrio cholera

Cholera

Food and water

 

 

 

 

 

Aerosol

Low with treatment

1 million organisms

500,000 org/L water

Yersinia pestis

Pneumonic plague

Aerosol inhalation

High unless treated

< 100 organisms

50 org/m3 air

Franciscella tularensis

Tularemia (rabbit fever)

Aerosol inhalation

Moderate

1 to 50 organisms

< 25 org/m3 air

Shigelladysenteriae

Dysentery

Inhalation and ingestion

Moderate

10 to 100 organisms

25 org/m3 air

25 org/L water

Rickettsia

Coxiella burnetti

Q fever

Aerosol inhalation

Very low

10 organisms

5 org/m3 air

 

 

Food

 

 

< 5 org/kg food

Rickettsia rickettsii

Rocky Mountain spotted fever

Vectors

Low

N/A

N/A

Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×

Agent

Disease

Transmission

Lethality

Infectivity

Required Detection Capabilitya

Viruses

Ebola virus

Ebola

Direct contact Aerosol

High for Zaire strain

N/A

 

Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (VEE) virus

Encephalitis

Vectors

Low

N/A

 

Yellow fever virus

Yellow fever

Vector/tick

Low

N/A

 

Rift Valley fever virus

Rift Valley fever

Vector/mosquito

Low

N/A

 

Variola virus

Smallpox

Aerosol

High to moderate

N/A

 

Hanta virus

Hanta

Aerosol

43% in U.S

N/A

N/A

Dengue fever

Dengue fever

Aedes mosquito

Low to moderate

N/A

 

a These numbers were calculated by dividing the infectivity level by 2 m3 (the amount of air assumed to be breathed in two hours by an active adult) or by 2 L, the amount of water consumed during a day.

Source: Boyle, 1998.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×

TABLE C-2 Characteristics of Selected Biological Toxins

Source

Toxin

LD50(µG/kg)

Required Detection Capabilitya

Notes

Bacteria

Clostridium botulinium

Botulinium A, B, C, D, E

~ 0.02 (inhalation)

0.1 mg/m3

Among the most potent toxins known.

 

 

1 (oral)

0.02 mg/L (water or food)

Delayed lethality.

Persists in food and water.

Breaks down within 12 hours in air.

Clostridium perfringens

Gangrene-causing enzyme

0.1 to 5

0.3 mg/m3

Delayed action.

Low mortality, but very debilitating.

Clostridium tetani

Tetanus toxin

~ 3

N/A

Delayed action.

Relatively unstable and heat sensitive.

Cornyebacterium diptheria

Diptheria toxin

0.03

N/A

Lethal.

Rapid acting.

Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus enterotoxin A, B, C, D, E, (Toxicity is for for type B)

0.4 (aerosol ED50)

20 (aerosol LD50)

0.3 (oral ED50)

0.058 mg/m3

Rapid acting.

Symptoms persist for us to 24-48 hours.

Severely incapacitating.

 

 

 

3 mg/m3

Can be lethal.

Large-scale production feasible.

 

 

 

0.007 mg/L

Very stable.

Dinoflagellates

Gonyaulax tamerensis,

Saxitoxin

1 (aerosol inhalation)

0.01 mg/m3 (air)

Lethal.

Gonyaulax catanella, and related species

(shellfish poison)

7 (oral)

0.2 mg/L

Rapid acting.

Soluble in water.

Relatively persistent.

Takifugu poecilonotuss

Tetrodotoxin

1.5 to 3 (inhalation)

0.3 mg/m3 (air)

Lethal.

Rapid acting.

 

 

30 (oral)

0.7 mg/L

Stable.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×

Source

Toxin

LD50 (µG/kg)

Required Detection Capabilitya

Notes

Algae

Anacystis species

Anatoxin A

170 to 250 (IP)b

 

very fast death factor.

Anabanea floss-aquae

(VFDF)

5,000 (oral)

2,100 (dermal)

100 mg/L(kg)

(water or food)

Very rapid acting.

Microcystis aeruginosa,

Microcystin (FDF)

25 to 100 (IP)b

~10 mg/m3 (air)

~2 mg/L (water)

Lethal, rapid acting

Fast death factor.

Microcystis, cyanea

 

 

 

 

Fungi

Fusarium species

Trichothecene mycotoxins

25 to 500 (inhalation)

40 mg/m3 (air)

Nonlethal, delayed effects.

Inhalation ingestion, dermal.

("yellow rain")

1,600 (oral)

40 mg/L

Very stable.

Small repeated doses are cumulative.

 

Plants

Ricinus communis

Ricin

1,000

150 mg/m3 (air)

20 mg/L (water)

Lethal, delayed action.

Easily produced.

Persistent.

Animals

Palythoa (soft corals)

Palytoxin

0.08 to 0.04

0.035 mg/m3 (air)

0.006 mg/L (water)

Lethal and rapid acting.

Stable.

Conus geographus

Contoxins

3 to 6

~0.6 mg/m3 (air)

~0.1 mg/L (water)

Water soluble.

Highly stable

Conus magnus fish-hunting cone snails)

 

 

 

Can be used as aerosols.

Easily synthesized.

Phyllobates aurotaenia and

Batrachotoxin

0.1 to 0.2

0.015 mg/m3 (air)

Rapid acting and lethal.

very stable

Phyllobates terribilis (Columbian frog)

 

 

 

Can be synthesized.

a Assumes 70-kg adult breathing at a rate of 0.016 m3/min for 30 minutes for air or the ingestion of 3 L water or 3 kg food by a 70-kg adult

b IP refers to intraperitoneal injection dose to mice.

Source: Boyle, 1998.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×

REFERENCE

Boyle, R.E. 1998. Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective. Contract No. LG-1597. Albuquerque, N.M.: Sandia National Laboratories.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×
Page 184
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×
Page 185
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×
Page 186
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×
Page 187
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×
Page 188
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×
Page 189
Suggested Citation:"Appendix C Harmful Properties of Biological Agents." National Research Council. 2000. Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces: Detecting, Characterizing, and Documenting Exposures. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9767.
×
Page 190
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Since Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Gulf War veterans have expressed concerns about health effects that could be associated with their deployment and service during the war. Although similar concerns were raised after other military operations, the Gulf War deployment focused national attention on the potential, but uncertain, relationship between the presence of chemical and biological (CB) agents and other harmful agents in theater and health symptoms reported by military personnel.

Strategies to Protect the Health of Deployed U.S. Forces which is one of the four two-year studies, examines the detection and tracking of exposures of deployed personnel to multiple harmful agents.

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