Index
A
Abstract reasoning, 74, 78, 89
Action research, 191, 199–200, 257
Active learning, 10, 12–13, 80, 182, 218
Adaptive expertise, 45–46, 50, 51, 73, 133, 140, 233
Administrators, schools, 243, 248, 251, 252, 259, 265, 266
Adult learning, 26–27.
See also Teacher learning
African Americans, 72, 73, 109, 110, 135
Algebra, 58, 63, 65, 137–138, 198, 213–214, 225
Alice in Wonderland/Through the Looking Glass books, 105–107
American Association of Physics Teachers, 191
Analogical reasoning, 62, 64, 65–66, 110
Annenberg Critical Friends Project, 197–198
Apprenticeship learning, 109, 191, 214, 220– 221
See also Methodologies, learning assessment;
Self-assessment
alternative, 192
conditionalized knowledge and, 43
content-process framework, 143–144
cultural sensitivity in, 72, 110–111, 146
with feedback, 19, 43, 140–141, 154
formative, 19, 24–25, 140–141, 142, 152, 154, 167, 217, 219, 257–258, 268, 277
grading practices, 146
of initial learning, 55, 56, 57
learning environments centered on, 139– 144, 154, 188, 196–197
learning goals and, 18–19
memorization focus, 9, 140, 141, 152, 189, 245
multiple-choice tests, 140
principles, 139–140
research recommendations, 251, 254–257, 258–259, 261–263
science education, 143–144, 277
standardized tests, 21, 132, 140, 141, 150, 189, 210–211, 220, 271–272
state education standards, 271
of strategic competence, 97
teacher training, 27, 197–198, 246–247, 264–266, 267–268
certification programs, 197, 272–273
theoretical frameworks, 142–144
of understanding, formats for, 56, 141, 142, 143
uses, 140
Automaticity of skills, 139
Axons, 116
B
Bay Area and National Writing Project, 195, 197
Behaviorism, 6–8
Beliefs, teachers, 48, 72, 73, 158, 159, 160– 161, 164, 170, 171, 195, 199, 203
Belvedere system, 214
Biological causality, 4, 88–89, 90, 112, 233
Biology, 68, 70–71, 174–177, 184–186, 187, 193, 216, 227, 233
Brain development, 235
basics, 116–117
blood vessel formation, 118–120, 126
environments for learning and, 119
experiences and, 117–119, 120, 121, 124– 125, 126–127, 233
functional organization, 120–121, 122–123, 126
instruction and, 121–123
learning and, 4, 114–115, 119–121
misconceptions about, 114
neural activity and, 119–120, 127, 276
social interaction and, 119, 126
synaptic connections, 116–118, 119–120, 122, 126
timetable for, 121–122, 126–127
Brain processes
memory and, 124–126
silent areas, 114
Breadloaf Writing Project, 198
BreadNet, 198
Bridging strategy, 179, 180, 187
Bruer, John, 127
Bush, Vannevar, 213
C
Calculus, 66
Cat learning, 6–8
Causality
physical, 84–88
Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project, 222
Chèche Konnen approach, 183–184, 187, 241
Chicago Teachers Academy for Mathematics and Science, 195
Children’s learning, 234–235.
See also Infant cognition
biological causality, 4, 88–89, 90, 112, 233
caregiver-child interactions, 103–104, 112– 113
children’s conceptions of intelligence and, 82, 101–102
choosing strategies, 99–101
community environments, 82, 111, 113
conversational, 109–110
cultural factors, 23, 108–111, 113, 233, 276
eavesdropping, 109–110
guided learning, 102–111
language, 4, 91–95, 102, 109, 112, 121
mathematics, 4, 12, 69, 71, 91, 92, 112, 137–138, 196
memory capacity and, 18, 58, 95–96
metacognition, 18–19, 21, 47, 82, 97–98
motivation, 61, 77, 101–102, 112
multiple intelligences and, 82, 101
multiple-strategy usage, 98–101
non-self-directed, 102
number concepts, 4, 91, 92, 112
observational, 109
physical concepts, 87–88, 102, 112
preconceptions, 10–12, 14–16, 19–20, 24, 70–71, 136, 153, 218, 236–237, 255, 261–262, 263
prior knowledge, 10–11, 14, 53, 54–55, 68–73, 78, 233
privileged-domain competencies, 81–82, 84–95, 102, 112
processing time, 58
reading, 105–108
reasoning complexity, 99, 138, 153
self-directed, 102
story-telling, 108
strategic competence, 82, 95, 96–98, 112
tool use, 87–88
Chunking/clustering technique, 32–33, 38, 52, 96–97
Classroom Action Research Network, 199
Classrooms
communications technology for, 182, 219, 247
community connections, 25–26, 207–208, 224–226, 246
competitiveness of students, 146
environments for learning, 23–24, 144– 147, 154, 246, 247
Global Lab, 209
norms and expectations, 145–147, 188
research based in, 199–200, 248, 252–254, 255, 259
Coaching, 42, 68, 177–178, 180–182, 222–223
Cognitive
and motivational factors, 280
representations and strategies, 65, 144, 145, 243
science, 8, 234, 244–245, 276, 279
Cognitively Guided Instruction Project, 197
Collaborative learning, 279–280
action research, 199
computer technology and, 209, 212–213, 219, 221
scientist-student partnerships, 209, 217
students, 74, 108, 141, 152, 182, 192, 222– 223
Communication. See also Internet
cultural differences, 73, 108–111, 113
interactive, 207–208, 219, 262–263
mass media, 275–276
network, 220–221
research recommendations, 252, 253, 254, 262–263, 274, 282–283
Communities of learners, 100, 156–157, 168, 182, 199, 204
Communities of practice, 183–184, 197–198, 207–208, 209, 227–229, 243
Community learning environments
broad community connections, 61, 147– 149, 154, 224–226, 245–246, 274
children’s learning and, 82, 111, 112
classrooms, 25–26, 144–147, 154, 246
computer technology and, 82, 212–213, 224–226, 227–228
student-scientist partnerships, 209
for teachers, 27, 197–199, 204, 227–229
Competence, 237–238.
See also Expert performance;
Strategic competence
zone of proximal development, 70–71, 72, 108
Competitiveness of students, 146
Comprehension-fostering activities, 107–108
Computational modeling research, 14
Computer language tasks, 53, 55, 60, 65
Computer programming experts, 33
Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE), 219–220, 221, 227
Computer technology
classroom communications systems, 182, 247
classroom-community connections, 82, 207–208, 209, 224–226
curriculum innovations, 4, 21, 68, 207– 213, 262–263
feedback through, 178, 182, 216–224, 243, 258
games, 16
importance, 206–207, 229–230, 233, 243, 247
Internet, 27, 209, 220, 224–226, 227–228, 243, 270, 282
recommendations, 243–244, 247, 255–256, 257, 258, 262–263, 269, 270, 277, 284
scaffolds and scaffolding, 68, 213–216, 243
science of learning, databases, 278–279
teacher learning opportunities, 194, 195, 198, 226–229, 269
tools, 21, 68, 74, 207, 213–216, 243–244, 247, 257
tutoring environments, 178, 221–224, 225
Concepts
knowledge organized around, 9, 33, 36, 38, 42–44, 49, 181–182
representations of, 63, 65–66, 276
Conceptual change. See also Preconceptions
science, 179–180, 184–186, 187
understanding, 70–71
Conceptual learning, 14–15, 16–17, 20, 50, 165–166, 260–261
conceptual structures, 9, 33, 36, 38, 40, 42–44, 49, 59, 65–66, 87, 181–182
Conditionalized knowledge, 42–44, 49, 59–60, 62, 197
Consciousness studies, 6
Constructivism, 10–11, 192, 195, 199, 277
Content knowledge. See Subject-matter (discipline) knowledge
Content-process assessment framework, 143– 144
Context
and access to knowledge, 9, 42–44, 49, 77
and language development, 94–95
and transfer of learning, 53, 62–63, 64, 78, 185, 236
Contextualized reasoning, 74–75, 78
Contrasting-cases strategy, 60, 78
Conversational learning, 109–110, 220, 225– 226
Cooperative learning, 192
Counting, 71, 78, 83, 91, 92, 98–99, 100, 165– 166, 167, 169, 196
Cultural practices
children’s learning and, 23, 108–111, 113, 233, 276
classroom norms and, 146–147
communications, 73, 108–111, 113
enrollment demographics, 264
ethnography, 110–111
misinterpretation of, 151
school culture, 273–274
sensitivity of teachers to, 23, 133–134, 135–136, 153
transfer of learning and, 4, 71–83, 88, 109–111
Curricula
computer-based innovations, 4, 68, 207– 213, 262–263
design approaches, 43, 138–139, 153, 262–263
limitations of traditional approaches, 136– 137, 138, 139
metacognition, 21
multiple-intelligences basis, 101
with real-world contexts, 69, 74–76, 169, 171, 207–213
research recommendations, 251, 254–259, 260–263, 273–274
scaling-up, 273–274
scope and sequence charts, 138
D
Dade Academy of the Teaching Arts, 198
Dart-throwing experiments, 56
Dendritic fields, 116
Descriptive Review, 198
Developmental psychology, 24, 82–84, 91, 234, 244, 267, 279–280
Diagnostic teaching, 134–135
Diagraming by experts, 38
Discourse, classroom, 72, 135, 183, 187, 199, 204
Doctrine of formal discipline, 51
Dodgson, C.L. (Lewis Carroll), 105–107
E
Eavesdropping, 109–110
Education
science of learning and, 4–5, 13–14
teacher preservice, 200–203, 204, 228, 229
Elaboration, 96
Entity theories, 102
Environments for learning, 4, 23–26, 233, 243–247, 273–274, 276
alignment of goals, 151–152, 154
assessment-centered, 139–144, 154, 188, 196–197
and brain development, 119
classrooms, 23–24, 144–147, 154, 246, 247
community-centered, 25–26, 144–149, 154, 188, 197–199, 245–246
educational goal changes, 131–133
family, 26, 103–104, 108–111, 112–113, 148–149, 153, 154, 245–246
interconnected components, 133, 134, 136, 138, 154
knowledge-centered, 24, 136–139, 153, 188, 194–195
language development and, 93–95
learner centered, 23–24, 133–136, 138, 153, 188, 192–194, 212–213, 233
Ethnography, 110–111
Exercise, and brain development, 117–119, 120
Experiences
and brain development, 117–119, 120, 121, 124–125, 126–127, 233
prior, and transfer of learning, 53, 54–55, 68–73, 78
Expert performance, 237–238, 258, 261
adaptive, 45–48, 50, 51, 73, 133, 140, 233
content/subject matter knowledge and, 16–17, 24, 45, 50, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163–164, 166, 188
context and access to knowledge, 9, 42– 44, 49, 77
metacognition and, 18, 47–48, 50
organization of knowledge, 4, 16–17, 36– 42, 45, 48, 49, 50, 56, 125, 136, 139, 155, 233, 237–238, 239, 242
pattern recognition, 17, 32–36, 44, 48, 50, 56
retrieval of knowledge, 32–33, 44, 49, 50, 56
segmentation of perceptual fields, 36
talent and, 58
teaching ability, 4, 33, 36, 37, 44–45, 46, 49–50, 155–157, 159–161, 188, 228–229, 241–242, 258
Extracurricular clubs and organizations, 149
F
Family
internet linkages with schools, 224–225
learning environment, 26, 103–104, 108– 111, 112–113, 148–149, 153, 154, 245– 246, 274
popular version of study at hand, publication, of, 275–276
Feedback, 47
assessments with, 19, 24–25, 43, 140–141, 154
computer technology, 178, 182, 216–224, 243, 258
interactive lectures, 180, 187, 219
peer, 19, 219–220, 222–223, 243, 279–280
teacher learning from, 196–197, 203, 268
tutoring environments, 177–178, 221
Formative assessments, 19, 24–25, 140–141, 142, 152, 154, 167, 217, 219, 257–258, 268, 277
Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 115, 124, 125
G
GenScope Project, 216
Geographic information systems, 17, 215
Geometry, 12, 57, 138, 170, 224
Geometry Tutor, 224
Grading practices, 146
H
Hamlet, 46
Heuristic problem-solving strategy, 67–68
Hippocampus, 124
History, 132
curricula (existing), 136
dates-facts teaching method, 157, 158, 160–161
debating evidence, 161–163, 241
interpreting events, 158
misconceptions about, 15
teachers’ differing views of, 158, 160–161
Holmes Group, 200
HumBio Project, 227
I
Ideal student initiative, 100
Impetus theory, 70
Incremental theories, 102
Infant cognition
active learning, 10
biological causality, 88
habituation paradigm, 83, 84, 85–86, 88, 91
memory, 83
non-nutritive sucking, 83
physical concepts, 84–88
schema use, 87
social interactions and, 103
theories of, 79–82
transfer of learning, 87
visual expectation, 83, 87, 91
Inferencing processes, 124
Information processing theories, 80, 91, 95– 96
Information systems design, 45–46, 262–263
Initial learning. See also Preconceptions
elements that promote, 53, 55–61
monitoring and feedback, 58–60
motivation and, 60–61
tests of, 66
and transfer of learning, 51, 53, 55–61, 66, 68, 77, 203
understanding and, 55–56, 57, 236
Inquiry-based instruction, 11–12, 16–17, 19, 21, 68, 107, 110–111, 156–157, 217
Institute for Research on Learning, 213
Instruction
abstract, 65–66
and brain development, 121–123
bridging strategy, 179, 180, 187
changes in methods, 132–133
coaching technique, 42, 68, 177–178, 180– 182, 222–223
cognitively guided, 102–111, 138, 197, 240
conceptual change strategies, 179–180
direct or lecture forms, 71
fluency development, 44
inquiry-based, 11–12, 68, 107, 110–111, 156–157, 217, 228–229
interactive, 179–180, 182, 187, 209, 216, 219
metacognitive approaches, 12, 21, 57–68, 78, 140, 217
pattern recognition, 44
progressive formalization, 137–138, 139
prompting technique, 66
research recommendations, 251, 254–256
strategic development and, 100–101
time, 58
video archives, 228–229
Instructional design, 21–22, 24, 42, 43, 138– 139, 153
Intelligence. See also Multiple intelligences
children’s conceptions of, 23, 82, 101–102
Internet, 27, 209, 220, 224–226, 227–228, 243, 270, 282
Inuits, 146
J
Japanese
classroom culture, 147
language development, 121–122
sushi experts, 45
Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series, 208, 209, 210–211, 216–217
K
Kamehameha School, 135
KEEP program, 108
Kids as Global Scientists research project, 226, 228
Knowing, theory of, 11
Knowledge, 252.
See also Organization of knowledge
competence and, 16–17
conditionalized, 42–44, 49, 59–60, 62, 197
content. See Subject-matter (discipline) knowledge
cultural, 72
environments for learning, 24, 136–139, 153, 188, 194–195
expertise and, 4, 9, 16–17, 24, 36–44, 45, 48, 49, 125, 237–238
facets, 181–182
pedagogical content, 45
pre-existing, 10–12, 14, 69, 78, 233.
See also Preconceptions
representations, 65–66, 78, 276.
See also Schemas
retrieval fluency, 32–33, 44, 49
standardized tests, 21, 132, 140, 141, 150, 189, 210–211, 220, 271–272
teacher learning environments, 20, 27, 194–195, 198
Knowledge Forum, 219
L
Language development
and abstract thought, 79
adult-infant interactions, 73, 104
and brain development, 121–124, 127, 235
Chèche Konnen approach, 241
context and, 94–95
cultural differences in, 109–110, 135–136
early, 4, 73, 81–85, 102, 112, 235
eavesdropping and, 109–110
environments for learning and, 93–95
sign language, 122–123
Learner-centered environments, 23–24, 133– 136, 138, 153, 188, 192–194, 212–213, 233
Learning-oriented learners, 61
Learning theories, 3, 14, 48, 51, 53, 63, 65, 131, 199, 203, 204, 250
assessment linked to, 142–144
infants’ capabilities, 79–82
Learning Through Collaborative Visualization (CoVis) Project, 212, 215, 221
Levin, James, 227–228
Literacy, changes in definition of, 132, 133
Literature, teaching, 46
Little Planet Literacy Series, 214
LOGO programming experiment, 53, 55, 60
M
Mass media, 275–276
Math Their Way, 194
Mathematics, 132
algebra, 58, 63, 65, 137–138, 198, 213– 214, 225
attitudes about, 210–211
calculus, 66
children’s knowledge of, 12, 69, 71, 81, 92, 112, 137–138, 196
computer-based tools and scaffolds, 213– 216, 225, 227, 229
contextualized reasoning, 74–76
counting-based arithmetic, 78, 98–99
curricula (existing), 137
fractions, 71, 72, 74, 91, 112
girls’ participation in, 145
guided discussion, 168–170, 240
instruction time, 58
Jasper Woodbury series, 208, 209, 210–211
Math Their Way curriculum, 194
model-based reasoning, 170–171, 215, 240
number concepts, 4, 91, 92, 112
PUMP curriculum, 225
real-world applications, 69, 74–76, 169, 171, 213–214, 225
software tools, 213–214
standards, 136
strategic activities, 98–99
teacher learning opportunities, 194, 195, 197, 198
teaching, 50, 62, 63, 67–68, 108, 137–138, 141, 164–171
transfer of competence, 65
video archives, 228–229
Mathematics in Context, 136
Mathematics Learning project, 227
Mathline, 198
Measures of learning, 51, 77, 78, 140.
See also Assessments
Medawar, Peter, 183
Media. See Mass media
Medial frontal cortex, 118
assessments based on, 9, 140, 141, 152, 189, 245
and transfer of learning, 55–56, 57, 59, 77, 235, 236
Memory. See also Organization of knowledge;
Retrieval of knowledge
and brain processes, 124–126
children’s capacity, 18, 58, 95–96
declarative, 124
experiments, 34–35
experts vs novices, 17
false, 125
infants, 83
procedural, 124
strategies, 96–97
synaptic connections and, 117
Metacognition
children’s learning and, 18–19, 21, 47, 82, 97–98, 233
instruction approaches, 12, 21, 22, 67–68, 78, 137, 140, 217, 258
Methodologies, learning assessment
graduated prompting, 66
standardized tests, 132
Microgenetic studies, 100
Microworlds, interactive computer, 216
Middle School Mathematics Through Application Projects, 213–214
Minds on Physics, 193, 194–195
Misconceptions, 14–15, 78, 178–179, 185–186, 187, 240
about brain development, 114
cultural, 151
science, 15, 70, 179–180, 218, 229, 237, 240–241
about teaching, 156, 163, 188, 242, 264, 265, 266–267
Model-based learning, 10, 63, 67–68, 166, 168, 170–171, 215, 240, 243
Modeling, 67, 68, 258–259, 265
computational modeling research, 14
Model-It, 216
Monitoring of learning, 58–59, 67–68, 78
Motivation to learn
achievement/competence, 61, 102, 103, 212–213
behaviorism, 6
children’s, 61, 77, 101–102, 112
cognitive ability and, 280
competence, 60
computer technology and, 210–211, 212– 213, 224, 227
learning orientation and, 61
performance orientation and, 61
social opportunities and, 61
Motor skills, 56, 65, 119, 121
Multiple-choice tests, 140
Multiple intelligences, 82, 101
Multiple strategies concept, 98–101
Multiplication, teaching, 165–166
N
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards , 259
National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 202
National Research Council, 138
National Science Foundation, 192
Navajos, 146
Neostriatum, 124
Neural activity, 119–120, 127, 235, 276
Non-self-directed learning, 102
Novices
accomplished, 48
experts compared with, 31–50
Numbers
early concepts, 4, 89–91, 92, 112
negative, 166–168
O
Observational learning, 109, 146
Oral skills, oral tradition, 73, 105, 108
Organization of knowledge, 4, 238–239, 281
chunking/clustering technique, 32–33, 38, 52, 96–97
cognitive activity and, 143–144
conceptual, 9, 38, 42–44, 49, 181–182
experts, 4, 16–17, 36–42, 45, 48, 50, 56, 125, 136, 139, 155, 233, 237–238, 239, 242
hierarchical structures, 173–177, 216
in schemas, 33, 36, 38, 40, 59, 65–66
P
Parallel distributed processing, 14
Parental involvement. See Family
Pattern recognition, expertise and, 17, 32–36, 44, 48, 50, 56
Pedagogical content knowledge, 45, 50, 155– 156, 163–164, 166, 168, 188, 242
teacher learning opportunities, 194, 199
Pedagogy
generic, 194
research laboratories, 268–269
theory of, 11
Performance-oriented learners, 61, 245
Phenomenological primitives, 181
Philadelphia Teachers Learning Cooperative, 199
Phonemes, 121
Photosynthesis, 71–72
Physical causality, 102
Physical concepts, 84–88
children’s competencies, 84–88, 102, 112
Physical models, 185
Physics, 11–12
assessments of understanding, 141, 142, 143
calculus and, 66
computer tools, 21, 68, 216, 217, 218, 227
databases, 278–279
experts, 33, 37–38, 39, 171–172
hierarchical analyses, 172–173
metacognition and, 19
Minds on Physics curriculum, 193, 194– 195
misconceptions, 15, 70, 179–180, 218, 237
qualitative strategies, 171–172
Physics Teacher Action Research Group, 199
Physics Teacher Resource Agent Project, 191
Plausibility judgments, 99
Policy makers, 248, 251, 265–266, 270–275
Portfolio assessment, 142, 220
Positron emission tomography, 115, 124
Practice
and brain development, 122, 123, 125
enhanced normal, 199
importance of, 53, 95, 177–178, 236
monitoring and feedback with, 58–59
Preconceptions
policy makers, 274
student, 10–12, 14–16, 19–20, 24, 70–71, 136, 153, 218, 236–237, 255, 261–262, 263
Principled conceptual knowledge, 165–166
Prior knowledge, 10–11, 14, 53, 54–55, 68–73, 78, 153, 233, 236–237
Privileged domains, early competencies, 81– 82, 84–95, 102, 112, 234
Problem-based learning, 62, 77, 239–240
Problem representations, 53, 63, 78, 165–166, 167, 237
Problem solving, 23, 234, 236, 244, 250, 279– 280
collective, 67–68
expert’s approach to, 37–38, 39, 41, 43, 50, 56
heuristic, 67–68
hierarchical analysis, 173–177
trial and error, 6–8
workplace simulations, 209
Procedural facilitation strategy, 67
Professional development. See Teacher learning
Progressive formalization, 137–138, 139
Project GLOBE, 212
Project SEED, 195
Project Zero, 198
Public opinion, 275–276
Pueblo Indian children, 109
PUMP curriculum, 225
Q
Questions, questioning, question-asking, 11– 12, 68, 107, 110–111, 156–157, 217
QUILL network, 227
R
Radical behaviorism, 8
Radiology experts, 33
Readiness to learn, 81
Reading, 67, 99, 105–108, 132, 133, 229
Real-world learning
computer technology and, 207–213, 225
mathematics, 69, 74–76, 169, 171, 208, 225
workplace simulations, 209
Reasoning
analogical, 62, 64, 65–66, 110
causal, 99
generic, 182
spatial, 99
strategies of children, 99, 138, 153
Reciprocal teaching, 18, 67, 100, 105
Referential communications, 99, 106
Rehearsal activities, 96, 98, 99
Reminiscing, 108
Representations, 106, 276, 281
computer technology, 243
problem representations, 53, 63, 78, 165– 166, 167, 237
virtual models, 215
Research, action, 191, 199–200, 257
Research on learning. See also Science of learning
focus, 5–6
Retrieval of knowledge
chunking technique, 32–33, 38, 52
context of original learning and, 62
cueing, 98
expertise and, 32–33, 44, 49, 50, 56
practice, 98
schematic organization and, 66
S
Scaffolding, 67, 68, 104, 108, 182, 213–216, 226, 243, 276
Schemas
infant push-pull, 87
organization of knowledge in, 33, 36, 38, 40, 59, 65–66
administrators, 243, 248, 251, 252, 259, 265, 266
alignment of goals within, 152
as communities, 26, 82, 224–226
school culture, 273–274
transfer of learning to everyday life, 73– 77, 78
transparent, 224
Science education, 132–133, 250.
See also Biology;
Physics
assessment of understanding, 143–144, 277
Chèche Konnen approach, 183–184, 187, 241
coaching technique, 180–182
conceptual change, 179–180, 184–186, 187, 229
curricula (existing), 136–137
girls’ participation in, 145
interactive instruction in large classes, 182
language practices in, 135–136
public policy issues, 214
real-world learning approaches, 212–213, 214
research recommendations, 261, 277
scientific reasoning, 186–187
standards, 136
student-scientist partnerships, 209, 217
teacher learning opportunities, 193–194, 195
teaching, 171–187
for young and “at risk” children, 138, 183–186
Science of learning
active learning, 12–13
development, 6–8
educational implications, 4–5, 13–14
methodological research, 277–278
pre-existing knowledge, 10–12
research recommendations, 276, 277–279, 283–284
understanding, emphasis on, 8–9
Self-assessment, 12, 140, 244, 257
Self-directed learning, 68, 102
Sense-making approaches, 12, 137, 159–161, 165, 183–184, 187, 198
Sesame Street, 151
Sherlock Project, 222–223
Situated learning, 88, 94, 104, 107–108, 109, 112, 134, 199
SMART Challenge Series, 217, 219
Social interactions, 103, 184, 233, 243
and brain development, 119, 126
caregiver-child, 103–104, 112–113
Social opportunities, and motivations to learn, 61
Social studies, 4, 61, 157, 219
Software, educational, 4, 68, 182, 207–213, 214, 215, 216, 219–220, 221, 227, 244
Spelling, 99
Spines, dendritic, 116
Standardized tests, 21, 132, 140, 141, 150, 189, 210–211, 220, 271–272
State education standards, 271
STELLA modeling environment, 216
Strategic competence, 182
assessment of, 97
children’s, 82, 95, 96–98, 112
choosing strategies, 99–101
multiple strategies, 98–101
Structural knowledge. See Organization of knowledge
Student Conference on Global Warming, 212–213
Subject-matter (discipline) knowledge, 20, 45
and effective teaching, 45, 50, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163–164, 166, 188
expertise and, 16–17, 24, 45, 50, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163–164, 166, 188
teacher learning, 195, 199, 202–203, 267
Summarization strategy, 96
Summative assessments, 140, 141, 154, 189
SummerMath, 195
T
Taking turns, 67
Teacher learning, 20, 26–27, 242
action research, 191, 199–200, 257
assessment-centered environments, 20, 196–197
assessment methods, 27, 197–198, 246– 247, 264–266, 267–268
certification programs, 197, 272–273
collaborative group work, 195, 197–199, 277–278
community-centered environments, 27, 197–199, 204, 227–229, 243
computer technology and, 194, 195, 198, 226–229, 243–244, 269
feedback from colleagues, 196–197, 203, 268
inservice, 191, 204, 262–266, 267–268, 269–270
knowledge-centered environments, 20, 27, 194–195, 198
learner-centered environments, 27, 192– 194
opportunities for practicing teachers, 191– 192, 204
paid time for, 200
preconceptions of teachers, 264, 265, 266–267
preservice education, 200–203, 204, 228, 229, 262–266, 267–269
quality of opportunities, 192–199
recommendations, 242, 243–244, 246–247, 252, 263–270, 272–273, 276
subject matter, 195, 199, 202–203, 267
and transfer of learning, 203, 242
Teacher Professional Development Institute (TAPPED IN), 228
Teaching, 21–23, 239–242, 279.
See also Instruction
accountability, 20
Chèche Konnen approach, 183–184, 187, 241
cultural sensitivity in, 133–134, 135–136, 153
diagnostic, 134–135
differential views of subject matter, 158
expert, 4, 33, 36, 37, 44–45, 46, 49–50, 155–157, 159–161, 188, 228–229, 241– 242, 258
goals-practices relationship, 12–13
knowledge of individual learners, 20, 168–170
learner-centered, 23–24, 133–134
left brain/right brain, 114
memory processes and, 125
metacognitive skills, 21
misconceptions about, 156, 163, 188
pedagogical content knowledge, 45, 50, 155–156, 163–164, 166, 168, 188, 194, 242
philosophical traditions of, 201
preconceptions of students, 10–12, 14–16, 19–20, 24, 70–71, 136, 153, 218, 236– 237, 255, 261–262, 263
preconceptions of teachers, 264, 265, 266–267
reading, 67
science, 171–187, 191, 193–195, 240–241
subject-matter expertise, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163–164, 166, 188, 202–203
written composition, 67
Technologies. See Computer technology;
Video-based learning programs
Television, 26, 82, 95, 149–151
Text-editor experiment, 65, 66
Theoretical problem description, 175–176
ThinkerTools Inquiry Curriculum, 21, 217
Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 42, 137
Thorndike, Edward L., 6–8
Time capsules, 159
Time on task, 18, 56, 58, 77–78, 235–236, 239
Tools
infant use of, 87–88
research recommendations, 251, 255–256, 267–270
technology, 68, 74, 213–216, 268–269.
See also Computer technology
Transfer of learning, 4, 17, 233, 235–237, 238–239, 251, 258.
See also Teaching
active approaches, 66
conceptual change and, 70–71
conditions of transfer and, 4, 51, 53, 63– 66
context of learning and, 53, 62–63, 64, 78, 185, 236
cultural practices and, 4, 71–73, 78, 109– 111
defined, 51
by infants, 87
initial learning and, 51, 53, 55–61, 66, 68, 77, 203
memorization and, 51, 55–56, 57, 77, 235, 236
near, 53
passive approaches, 66
previous experiences and, 53, 54–55, 68– 73, 78
problem representations, 53, 63, 78
from school to everyday life, 73–77, 78
teacher role to students, 226–227, 269
time necessary for, 56–58, 77–78, 235–236
understanding and, 6, 55–56, 57, 60–61, 77–78, 136, 236
Tutoring environments, 178, 221–224, 225
U
Understanding
assessment formats, 56, 141, 142, 143
conceptual change, 70–71
contrasting-cases concept, 60
feedback on, 59
learning with, 6, 8–9, 136, 137–138, 139, 140, 180–181
memorization contrasted, 55–56, 57, 59
negative numbers, 166–168
physical causality, 84–88
and problem solving, 41
and transfer of learning, 55–56, 57, 59–60, 70–71, 77–78, 136
U.S. Department of Education, 192
Usefulness of information, 61
V
Video-based learning programs, 208–209, 228–229, 258–259, 268, 270
Visible thinking, 82, 185–186, 220–221, 235
Visual cortex, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121
Voyage of the Mimi, 208
Vygotsky, Lev, 10
W
WEBCSILE, 227
Wisconsin Teacher Enhancement Program in Biology, 193–194
Woodrow Wilson Fellows, 191
Word problems, 43, 63, 169, 196
World Wide Web. See Internet
Writing, 67, 132, 195, 214, 222–223, 227
Wundt, Wilhelm, 6
Z