NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
This report was prepared with the support of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Grant Nos. DE-AC01-89DP48070, DE-FG22-91BC14837, DE-FG05-91ER40668, and DE-FG08-92NV11227 and Contract No. DE-FG01-92CE31021, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), Grant Nos. NRC-G-04-91-089 and NRC-04-91-089. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of DOE or NRC.
SPONSORS: This project was sponsored by the following federal agencies: Department of Defense (Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Defense Nuclear Agency); Department of Energy (Office of Energy Research, Office of Environmental Restoration and Waste Management, Office of Fossil Energy, Geothermal Division of the Office of Conservation and Renewable Energy, Office of the Superconducting Super Collider, Yucca Mountain Site Characterization Project Office); Department of the Interior (Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Reclamation); Environmental Protection Agency (Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory); Federal Transit Administration; National Science Foundation; and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. In addition, the Gas Research Institute and Dowell-Schlumberger, Inc., provided support for this project. The National Research Council, through its Day Fund, extended financial support for the publication and dissemination of the report.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Rock fractures and fluid flow : contemporary understanding and applications / Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow … [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-04996-2 (alk. paper)
1. Rocks—Fracture. 2. Rock mechanics. 3. Fluid dynamics. 4. Hydrogeology. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow.
TA706.R525 1996 96-14613
624.1′5132—dc20 CIP
Copyright 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
COMMITTEE ON FRACTURE CHARACTERIZATION AND FLUID FLOW
Jane C. S. Long (Chair),
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
Atilla Aydin,
Stanford University, Stanford, California
Stephen R. Brown,
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
Herbert H. Einstein,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
Kevin Hestir,
Utah State University, Logan
Paul A. Hsieh,
U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California
Larry R. Myer,
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
Kenneth G. Nolte,
Dowell-Schlumberger, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Denis L. Norton,
University of Arizona, Tucson (until October 13, 1993)
Olle L. Olsson,
Conterra AB, Uppsala, Sweden
Frederick L. Paillet,
U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado
J. Leslie Smith,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Leon Thomsen,
Amoco Production, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Staff
Duncan Brown, Study Director
Kevin Crowley, Technical Editor
Amelia B. Mathis, Senior Secretary/Project Assistant
Wendy Lewallen, Project Assistant (from November 1994)
Peter H. Smeallie, Study Director (to May 1994)
Jennifer T. Estep, Administrative Assistant (to May 1994)
Helen Johnson, Administrative Associate (from November 1994 to July 1995)
Susanna Clarendon, Administrative Assistant (from November 1995)
Theron Feist, Project Assistant (from November 1994 to June 1995)
Beth Shevitz, Research Assistant (from December 1994 through February 1995)
U.S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR ROCK MECHANICS
Jane C. S. Long (Chair),
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
Herbert H. Einstein,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
Bezalel C. Haimson,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
Ronald P. Nordgren,
NAE, Rice University, Houston, Texas
Miklos G. Salamon,
Colorado School of Mines, Golden
Lawrence W. Teufel,
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
Donald L. Turcotte,
NAS, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
Former Members Active During the Course of the Study
Bernard Amadei (until 1994),
University of Colorado, Boulder
Barry H. G. Brady (Chair from 1992 until 1994),
Dowell-Schlumberger, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Arthur McGarr (until 1992),
U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California
James E. Monsees (until 1994),
PB/MK Team, Dallas, Texas
Wolfgang R. Wawersik (Chair until 1992),
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
Lewis V. Wade (until 1994),
U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Staff
Mahadevan Mani, Director
Peter H. Smeallie, Director (to May 1994)
Jennifer T. Estep, Administrative Assistant (to May 1994)
Amelia B. Mathis, Senior Secretary/Project Assistant
GEOTECHNICAL BOARD
James K. Mitchell,
NAE,
(Chair)
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg
Clarence R. Allen,
NAE/NAS, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena
Joan (Jodie) Z. Bernstein,
Waste Management, Oak Brook, Illinois
David E. Daniel,
University of Texas, Austin
William S. Gardner,
W. S. Gardner and Associates, Blue Bell, Pennsylvania
James P. Gould,
NAE, Mueser, Rutledge Consulting Engineers, New York, New York
François E. Heuze,
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
Charles C. Ladd,
NAE, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
James D. Murff,
Exxon Production Research Company, Houston, Texas
Shlomo P. Neuman,
NAE, University of Arizona, Tucson
Thomas D. O'Rourke,
NAE, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
Reuben Samuels,
Parsons Brinckerhoff, New York, New York
Robert L. Schuster,
U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado
Don W. Steeples,
University of Kansas, Lawrence
Liaison Members from the Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems
William C. Webster,
University of California, Berkeley
Robert V. Whitman,
Lexington, Massachusetts
Former Members Active During the Course of the Study
Philip E. LaMoreaux (until 1992),
P. E. LaMoreaux and Associates, Inc., Tuscaloosa, Alabama
Jean-Claude Roegiers (until 1992),
University of Oklahoma, Norman
Wilson H. Tang (until 1992),
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Staff
Mahadevan Mani, Director
Peter H. Smeallie, Director (to May 1994)
Jennifer T. Estep, Administrative Assistant (to May 1994)
Amelia B. Mathis, Senior Secretary/Project Assistant
BOARD ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
H. M. (Hub) Hubbard (Chair), President and Chief Executive Officer,
Pacific International Center for High Technology Research, Honolulu, Hawaii
Richard Meserve (Vice-Chair), Partner,
Covington & Burling, Washington, D.C.
Stephen D. Ban, President,
Gas Research Institute, Chicago, Illinois
Robert D. Banks, Program Director,
Technology and Environment, World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
Allen J. Bard,
NAS,
Professor,
Department of Chemistry, University of Texas, Austin
Barbara R. Barkovich, Partner,
Barkovich and Yap, Consultants, San Rafael, California
Jan Beyea, Chief Scientist,
National Audubon Society, New York, New York
David E. Daniel, L. B. (Preach) Meaders Professor of Civil Engineering,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas, Austin
Linda C. Dolan, Staff Environmental Engineer,
Martin Marietta Electronics and Missiles, Orlando, Florida
Robert L. Hirsch, President,
Energy Technology Collaborative, Washington, D.C.
François E. Heuze, Head,
Geotechnical Group, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California
Charles D. Kolstad, Professor,
Department of Economics, University of California, Santa Barbara
Jane C. S. Long, Staff Scientist,
Earth Sciences Division, Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
Seymour Meisel,
NAE,
Vice-President,
Research (Retired), Mobil R&D Corporation, Princeton, New Jersey
Shlomo P. Neuman,
NAE,
Regents' Professor,
Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson
Thomas O'Rourke,
NAE,
Professor,
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
Lawrence T. Papay,
NAE,
Vice-President and Manager of Research and Development,
Bechtel Group, San Francisco, California
Ruth A. Reck, Director,
Global Climate Change Program, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois
Marc H. Ross, Professor,
Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Harold H. Schobert, Chairman,
Fuel Sciences Program, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park
Joel Spira,
NAE,
Chairman and Director of Research,
Lutron Electronics Company, Coopersburg, Pennsylvania
Jon M. Veigel, President,
Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Liaison Members from the Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems
Richard A. Conway,
NAE,
Senior Corporate Fellow,
Union Carbide Corporation, South Charleston, West Virginia
Trevor O. Jones,
NAE,
Chairman of the Board (Retired),
Libbey-Owens-Ford Company, Cleveland, Ohio
Staff
Mahadevan Mani, Director
James Zucchetto, Senior Program Officer
Tracy Wilson, Senior Program Officer
Jill Wilson, Program Officer
Helen Johnson, Administrative Associate
Susanna Clarendon, Administrative Assistant
Amelia Mathis, Senior Secretary/Project Assistant
Wendy Lewallen, Administrative Assistant
Theron Feist, Project Assistant
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The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and interim vice-chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
Preface
At its meeting in June 1990, the U.S. National Committee for Rock Mechanics (USNCRM), a standing committee of the National Research Council (NRC), identified rock fractures as a subject of great concern to the rock mechanics community. The USNCRM proposed that the NRC undertake a study to review characterization and fluid flow in rock fractures. The Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow was appointed by the NRC in April 1991 and met for the first time in May 1991. The committee membership represents many of the disciplines concerned with rock fractures and fluid flow, including rock mechanics, hydrogeology, hydrofractures, geophysics, geology, geostatistics, civil engineering, and seismology. The committee met six times over the course of this study to debate, define, and develop this report.
Interest in fluid flow in fractured rock has grown rapidly in the past two decades, as a tool in recovering water and hydrocarbon supplies and geothermal energy, in predicting the flow of pollutants underground, and in engineering structures. Practitioners have recognized that progress in this field can be made only by drawing information from a number of different disciplines. However, a person trained in hydrology may have a limited understanding of what geology, geophysics, or geomechanics can do to help solve a problem in fluid flow. As a result, hydrological modelers often disregard geological or geophysical information that they do not know how to use. Similarly, those trained in geology, geophysics, or geomechanics may fail to understand aspects of fractures that are relevant to fluid flow. Studies produced under these conditions may be fascinating, but peripheral or even irrelevant to the real problems they are intended to address. These attitudes are self-propagating and lead to dead ends.
This report is intended to promote a new, interdependent approach. It discusses the varied approaches used to solve problems of fluid flow in fractured rock, so that students, faculty, and practitioners may understand the strengths and limitations, as well as the interdependencies, of the available tools. It also contains recommendations for interdisciplinary research on problems that are not well understood, for the use of policy makers and research program managers.
This report has limitations. Its breadth has prohibited a comprehensive treatment of any single disciplinary area, although it does communicate a basic understanding of each area. Experts are unlikely to learn much from the chapters devoted to their fields, but should find much of interest in the other chapters.
The report is neither a review of the state of the art nor a literature survey, and does not include references to much important work. However, although the references are not all-inclusive, they are designed to be an entrance to the literature.
Committee members served the NRC as volunteers for more than three years to complete this study despite busy schedules and conflicting demands. Committee members responded to the chairman's unending demands and the critiques of their colleagues and of the NRC's staff and reviewers.
The committee was supported by an impressive list of outside contributors who responded with enthusiasm to calls such as ''Could you write a brief treatment of the importance of diagenesis?" or "Tell us what you know about two-phase flow in fractures." These individuals made a great difference in the quality of the final report. Steve Martel of the University of Hawaii merits special thanks. He contributed a significant effort to Chapter 2 as well as helping organize a field trip for the committee to look at fracture patterns in crystalline and volcanic rocks. Chris Dyke of British Petroleum wrote an account of diagenesis. Steve Laubach of the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology wrote one about joint systems. Marcelo Lippmann contributed sections on the role of fractures in geothermal energy development. Kenzi Karasaki of Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory contributed a treatment of well test analysis. Bill Foxall of Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory wrote about the San Andreas Fault system. Ernie Majer of Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory gave advice about cross-hole seismic methods. Tom Daley, also of Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, contributed a treatment of shear-wave anisotropy. Richard Everitt of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited contributed a description of the hydrology of fault zones at the Underground Research Laboratory. Bob Glass of Sandia National Laboratory wrote about two-phase flow in fractures in Chapter 3. Norm Warpinski of Sandia National Laboratory contributed an account of the Multiwell Experiment. Duayne Chesnut of Lawrence Livermore Laboratory and Deborah Hopkins, Robert Zimmerman, and Jahan Noorishad of Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory put time and effort into helping us with the difficulties of Chapter 7. Ki Ha Lee
and Karstin Pruess of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory also made essential contributions. To all of these people we are grateful.
Several individuals were critical to the development and conduct of this study and must be mentioned explicitly. Wolfgang Wawersik, chaired the USNCRM when that committee developed the idea for this study, provided enthusiasm and moral support that sustained the project, and particularly the chairman. Peter Smeallie, as study director, developed the financial support, steered the work through the required procedures of the NRC, and guided the committee with skill, intelligence and tact. Jennifer Estep dealt with the committee's trips, its manuscripts, and its unending trivial requests—all with consistent cheerfulness, intelligence and know-how—and in addition had two beautiful babies during the study! Amelia Mathis doggedly yet cheerfully prepared numerous versions of the manuscript. Kevin Crowley edited the entire document, written by scores of people; he made it a readable and coherent document. Dev Mani became coordinator of the project near its completion and deserves our thanks for his efforts. The end game of this report was skillfully handled by Duncan Brown with help from Wendy Lewallen and Beth Shevitz. Jim Mitchell served as report review coordinator on behalf of the NRC, performing that demanding job with insight and good cheer. Nine anonymous reviewers went through the extensive text and provided comments that significantly improved the product.
The study received direct support from a number of federal government agencies concerned with research, resource development, environmental regulation and remediation, and civil infrastructure systems. These agencies were the Department of Energy's Office of Environmental Restoration and Waste Management, Office of Energy Research, Office of Fossil Energy, Geothermal Energy Division, Office of the Super conducting Super Collider, and Yucca Mountain Site Characterization Project Office; the Environmental Protection Agency's Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory and the Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory; the Nuclear Regulatory Commission; the Department of the Interior's Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, and Bureau of Land Management; the Department of Defense's Air Force Office of Scientific Research and the Defense Nuclear Agency; Federal Transit Administration; and the National Science Foundation. In addition, two private-sector organizations contributed to the support of the study: the Gas Research Institute and Dowell-Schlumberger, Inc. The National Research Council, through its Day Fund, extended financial support for the publication and dissemination of the report. The committee and staff gratefully acknowledge the support of each of these agencies and organizations.
A number of individuals from the various federal agencies and other organizations that sponsored the study helped the committee by serving as liaisons to the committee and providing data, information, and materials. The committee wishes specifically to acknowledge the contributions of the following: Max Blanchard and Robert Levich, Yucca Mountain Site Characterization Project Office, U.S.
Department of Energy; Barry H. G. Brady, Dowell-Schlumberger, Inc.; James Carney, Office of the Superconducting Super Collider, U.S. Department of Energy; Peter G. Chamberlain, F. Michael Jenkins, and Robert D. Schmidt, U.S. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior; Alex Crawley and Robert Lemmon, Bartlesville Project Office, U.S. Department of Energy; George Stosur, Office of Fossil Energy, U.S. Department of Energy; Joseph Dlugosz, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Allan Jelacic and Marshall J. Reed, Geothermal Energy Division, U.S. Department of Energy; Stephen Kraemer and Steven G. Schmelling, Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Eric Lightner and Caroline B. Purdy, Office of Environmental Management, U.S. Department of Energy; Jacob Philip and Thomas Nicholson, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission; Hillary A. Oden, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior; Kent F. Perry, Gas Research Institute; Byron L. Ristvet, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Department of Energy; Greg A. Scott, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of the Interior.
This study has been an odyssey, albeit a rewarding one. We hope our readers find equivalent rewards in it.
Jane C. S. Long
Chairman, Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow