and will be most effective when used in conjunction with all of the standards described in this book. Furthermore, implementation of the content standards cannot be successful if only a subset of the content standards is used (such as implementing only the subject matter standards for physical, life, and earth science). This introduction sets the framework for the content standards by describing the categories of the content standards with a rationale for each category, the form of the standards, the criteria used to select the standards, and some advice for using the science content standards.
The eight categories of content standards are
The standard for unifying concepts and processes is presented for grades K-12, because the understanding and abilities associated with major conceptual and procedural schemes need to be developed over an entire education, and the unifying concepts and processes transcend disciplinary boundaries. The next seven categories are clustered for grades K-4, 5-8, and 9-12. Those clusters were selected based on a combination of factors, including cognitive development theory, the classroom experience of teachers, organization of schools, and the frameworks of other disciplinary-based standards. References for additional reading for all the content standards are presented at the end of Chapter 6.
The sequence of the seven grade-level content standards is not arbitrary: Each standard subsumes the knowledge and skills of other standards. Students' understandings and abilities are grounded in the experience of inquiry, and inquiry is the foundation for the development of understandings and abilities of the other content standards. The personal and social aspects of science are emphasized increasingly in the progression from science as inquiry standards to the history and nature of science standards. Students need solid knowledge and understanding in physical, life, and earth and space science if they are to apply science.
Multidisciplinary perspectives also increase from the subject-matter standards to the standard on the history and nature of science, providing many opportunities for integrated approaches to science teaching.
Conceptual and procedural schemes unify science disciplines and provide students with powerful ideas to help them understand the natural world. Because of the underlying principles embodied in this standard, the understandings and abilities described here are repeated in the other content standards. Unifying concepts and processes include
In the vision presented by the Standards, inquiry is a step beyond "science as a process," in which students learn skills, such as observation, inference, and experimentation. The new vision includes the "processes of science" and requires that students combine processes and scientific knowledge as they use scientific reasoning and critical thinking to develop their understanding of science. Engaging students in inquiry helps students develop
Science as inquiry is basic to science education and a controlling principle in the ultimate organization and selection of students' activities. The standards on inquiry highlight the ability to conduct inquiry and develop understanding about scientific inquiry. Students at all grade levels and in every domain of science should have the opportunity to use scientific inquiry and develop the ability to think and act in ways associated with inquiry, including asking questions, planning and conducting investigations, using appropriate tools and techniques to gather data, thinking critically and logically about relationships between evidence and explanations, constructing and analyzing alternative explanations, and communicating scientific arguments. Table 6.1 shows the standards for inquiry. The science as inquiry standards are described in terms of activities resulting in student development of certain abilities and in terms of student understanding of inquiry.
The standards for physical science, life science, and earth and space science describe the subject matter of science using three widely accepted divisions of the domain of science. Science subject matter focuses on the science facts, concepts, principles, theories, and models that are important for all students to know, understand, and use. Tables 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4 are the standards for physical science, life science, and earth and space science, respectively.
The science and technology standards in Table 6.5 establish connections between the natural and designed worlds and provide students with opportunities to develop decision-making abilities. They are not standards for technology education; rather, these standards emphasize abilities associated with the process of design and fundamental understandings about the enterprise of science and its various linkages with technology.
As a complement to the abilities developed in the science as inquiry standards, these standards call for students to develop abilities to identify and state a problem, design a solution--including a cost and risk-and-benefit analysis--implement a solution, and evaluate the solution.
Science as inquiry is parallel to technology as design. Both standards emphasize student development of abilities and understanding. Connections to other domains, such as mathematics, are clarified in Chapter 7, Program Standards.
An important purpose of science education is to give students a means to understand and act on personal and social issues. The science in personal and social perspectives standards help students develop decision-making skills. Understandings associated with the concepts in Table 6.6 give students a foundation on which to base decisions they will face as citizens.
In learning science, students need to understand that science reflects its history and is an ongoing, changing enterprise. The standards for the history and nature of science recommend the use of history in school science programs to clarify different aspects of scientific inquiry, the human aspects of science, and the role that science has played in the development of various cultures. Table 6.7 provides an overview of this standard.
Below is an example of a content standard. Each content standard states that, as the result of activities provided for all students in the grade level discussed, the content of the standard is to be understood or the abilities are to be developed.
CONTENT STANDARD B:
As a result of the activities in grades K-4, all students should develop an understanding of
The next section of each standard is a Guide to the Content Standard, which describes the fundamental ideas that underlie the standard. Content is fundamental if it
Three criteria influence the selection of science content. The first is an obligation to the domain of science. The subject matter in the physical, life, and earth and space science standards is central to science education and must be accurate. The presentation in national standards also must accommodate the needs of many individuals who will implement the standards in school science programs. The standards represent science content accurately and appropriately at all grades, with increasing precision and more scientific nomenclature from kindergarten to grade 12.
The second criterion is an obligation to develop content standards that appropriately represent the developmental and learning abilities of students. Organizing principles were selected that express meaningful links to direct student observations of the natural world. The content is aligned with students' ages and stages of development. This criterion includes increasing emphasis on abstract and conceptual understandings as students progress from kindergarten to grade 12.
Tables 6.8, 6.9, and 6.10 display the standards grouped according to grade levels K-4, 5-8, and 9-12, respectively. These tables provide an overview of the standards for elementary-, middle-, and high-school science programs.
The third criterion is an obligation to present standards in a usable form for those who must implement the standards, e.g., curriculum developers, science supervisors, teachers, and other school personnel. The standards need to provide enough breadth of content to define the domains of science, and they need to provide enough depth of content to direct the design of science curricula. The descriptions also need to be understandable by school personnel and to accommodate the structures of elementary, middle, and high schools, as well as the grade levels used in national standards for other disciplines.
Many different individuals and groups will use the content standards for a variety of purposes. All users and reviewers are reminded that the content described is not a science curriculum. Content is what students should learn. Curriculum is the way content is organized and emphasized; it includes structure, organization, balance, and presentation of the content in the classroom. Although the structure for the content standards organizes the understanding and abilities to be acquired by all students K-12, that structure does not imply any particular organization for science curricula.
Persons responsible for science curricula, teaching, assessment and policy who use the Standards should note the following
.As science advances, the content standards might change, but the conceptual organization will continue to provide students with knowledge, understanding, and abilities that will improve their scientific literacy.
The National Science Education Standards envision change throughout the system. The science
content standards encompass the following changes in emphases:
LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON
Knowing scientific facts Understanding scientific concepts and developing
and information abilities of inquiry
Studying subject matter disciplines Learning subject matter disciplines in the context
(physical, life, earth sciences) for of inquiry,technology, science in personal and
their own sake social perspectives, and history
and nature of science
Separating science knowledge Integrating all aspects of science content
and science process
Covering many science topics Studying a few fundamental science concepts
Implementing inquiry as Implementing inquiry as instructional
a set of processes strategies, abilities, and ideas to be learned
CHANGING EMPHASES TO PROMOTE INQUIRY
LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS
Activities that demonstrate Activities that investigate and analyze science
and verify science content questions
Investigations confined to Investigations over extended periods of time
one class period
Process skills out of context Process skills in context
Emphasis on individual process skills Using multiple process skills--
such as observation or inference manipulation, cognitive, procedural
Getting an answer Using evidence and strategies for developing or
revising an explanation
Science as exploration and experiment Science as argument and explanation
Providing answers to questions Communicating science explanations
about science content
Individuals and groups of students Groups of students often analyzing and
analyzing and synthesizing data synthesizing data after defending conclusions
without defending a conclusion
Doing few investigations in order to Doing more investigations in order to develop
leave time to cover large understanding, ability, values of inquiry and
amounts of content knowledge of science content
Concluding inquiries with the result Applying the results of experiments to scientific
of the experiment arguments and explanations
Management of materials and equipment Management of ideas and information
Private communication of student ideas Public communication of student ideas
and conclusions to teacher and work to classmates
