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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
Committee on Twenty-First Century Systems Agriculture
Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 Fifth Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation under Contract No. 48042 and P3005905. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the foundations that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-14896-2 (Book)
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-14896-0 (Book)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-14897-9 (PDF)
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-14897-9 (PDF)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2010927922
Additional copies of this report are available from the
National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu.
Copyright 2010 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
COMMITTEE ON TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY SYSTEMS AGRICULTURE
JULIA L. KORNEGAY, Chair,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
RICHARD R. HARWOOD, Vice Chair,
Michigan State University (Emeritus), East Lansing
SANDRA S. BATIE,
Michigan State University, East Lansing
DALE BUCKS,
Bucks Natural Resources Management, Elkridge, Maryland
CORNELIA BUTLER FLORA,
Iowa State University, Ames
JAMES HANSON,
University of Maryland, College Park
DOUGLAS JACKSON-SMITH,
Utah State University, Logan
WILLIAM JURY,
University of California, Riverside
DEANNE MEYER,
University of California, Davis
JOHN P. REGANOLD,
Washington State University, Pullman
AUGUST SCHUMACHER, JR.,
SJH and Company, Boston, Massachusetts
HENNING SEHMSDORF,
S&S Homestead Farm, Lopez Island, Washington
CAROL SHENNAN,
University of California, Santa Cruz
LORI ANN THRUPP,
Fetzer Vineyards, Hopland, California
PAUL WILLIS,
Niman Ranch Pork Company, Thornton, Iowa
Consultants
LAWRENCE ELWORTH,
Center for Agricultural Partnerships, Asheville, North Carolina
C. CLARE HINRICHS,
Pennsylvania State University, State College
SUSAN SMALLEY,
Michigan State University, East Lansing
Editor
PAULA TARNAPOL WHITACRE,
Full Circle Communications, LLC
Staff
EVONNE P.Y. TANG, Study Director
ERIN P. MULCAHY, Senior Program Assistant
JANET M. MULLIGAN, Research Associate
KAREN L. IMHOF, Administrative Assistant
ROBERTA A. SCHOEN, Board Director
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
BOARD ON AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
NORMAN R. SCOTT, Chair,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
PEGGY F. BARLETT,
Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
HAROLD L. BERGMAN,
University of Wyoming, Laramie
RICHARD A. DIXON,
Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, Ardmore, Oklahoma
DANIEL M. DOOLEY,
University of California, Oakland
JOAN H. EISEMANN,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
GARY F. HARTNELL,
Monsanto Company, St. Louis, Missouri
GENE HUGOSON,
Minnesota Department of Agriculture, St. Paul
KIRK C. KLASING,
University of California, Davis
VICTOR L. LECHTENBERG,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
PHILIP E. NELSON,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
KEITH PITTS,
Marrone Bio Innovations, Davis, California
CHARLES W. RICE,
Kansas State University, Manhattan
HAL SALWASSER,
Oregon State University, Corvallis
PEDRO A. SANCHEZ,
The Earth Institute, Columbia University, Palisades, New York
ROGER A. SEDJO,
Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.
KATHLEEN SEGERSON,
University of Connecticut, Storrs
MERCEDES VAZQUEZ-AÑON,
Novus International, Inc., St. Charles, Missouri
Staff
ROBERTA A. SCHOEN, Director
RUTH S. ARIETI, Research Associate
CAMILLA YANDOC ABLES, Associate Program Officer
KAREN L. IMHOF, Administrative Assistant
KARA N. LANEY, Associate Program Officer
AUSTIN J. LEWIS, Senior Program Officer
ERIN P. MULCAHY, Senior Program Assistant
JANET M. MULLIGAN, Research Associate
KAMWETI MUTU, Research Associate
EVONNE P.Y. TANG, Senior Program Officer
PEGGY TSAI, Program Officer
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
Preface
Since the National Research Council published the report Alternative Agriculture in 1989, there has been a remarkable emergence of innovations and technological advances that are generating promising changes and opportunities for sustainable agriculture in the United States. At the same time, the agricultural sector worldwide faces numerous daunting challenges that will require innovations, new technologies, and new ways of approaching agriculture if the food, feed, and fiber needs of the global population are to be met.
This report, Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century, assesses the scientific evidence for the strengths and weaknesses of different production, marketing, and policy approaches for improving agricultural sustainability and reducing the costs and unintended consequences of agricultural production. It also evaluates the transferability of principles underlying farming systems and practices that could improve the sustainability of small-scale agricultural systems in less developed countries, with an emphasis on sub-Saharan Africa. The report includes case studies of different kinds of farms and farming systems in different regions of the United States that actively pursue the goal of sustainability and revisits some farms originally featured in Alternative Agriculture. We want to thank the farmers who so generously shared their expertise and experiences and to wish them well in their future farming endeavors. We also want to thank the consultants who conducted and documented the farmer interviews.
The study committee included 15 members with expertise in food production and agribusiness; crop, soil, and horticultural sciences; water-use and water-quality science; farming systems and agroecology; agricultural economics and social science; and federal farm, trade, international development, environmental, and regulatory policies (Appendix B). Two of the committee members are farmers. The committee also solicited information from a wide range of experts (Appendix C) with complementary expertise and experience. We are grateful for their willingness to give of their time and knowledge. During the development of the report, the committee held two workshops. The first focused on the state of the science on agricultural methods and systems for improving sustainability, and a
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
second was on the lessons learned and transferability of agriculture practices and systems to improve sustainability of agriculture in developing countries. Two public committee meetings, in which other experts were invited to provide the committee with information on U.S. agricultural economics and policies, and their effect on farming systems, farmers’ behavior, and the environment, were also held. Some of the committee members also attended the Sustainable Agricultural Research and Education (SARE) conference in Kansas City, Missouri, in 2008 to gather information.
Challenges that the committee immediately faced included understanding and interpreting the rapid changes and developing crises in the global economy and their effect on sustainable agriculture. For example, when the committee began its study, global price of crude fuel oil rose from about $75 per barrel to a peak of $147 in July 2008. This increase caused harmful reverberations across the global agriculture sector and shortages of corn, rice, and other food, especially in developing countries, and a significant increase in the demand for biofuels. It was immediately followed by the global economic crisis, which, among other impacts, restricted farmers’ access to credit, lowered land values, and lowered prices for biofuels when fuel oil costs declined by half. On a more positive note, the committee faced a virtual cascade of new information and programs relating to sustainable agriculture, such as important new advances in science and in federal and state programs and policies. The new federal farm bill places greater emphasis on agricultural sustainability, organic agriculture, and renewable energy and fuels, and support is growing for regional and local food production systems.
The committee notes that although most farms have the potential and responsibility to contribute to different aspects of sustainability, U.S. agriculture needs both incremental and transformative changes to address the many challenges of the future. Incremental changes—such as pest-resistant varieties, conservation tillage, integrated pest management, and use of crop diversity including cover crops, crop rotations, and other biologically integrative technologies and practices—have been increasingly used in many regions, but have not yet been adapted to some fragile areas and to low-rainfall cropland. Transformative changes include the development of new farming systems that represent a dramatic departure from the dominant systems of present-day American agriculture and capitalize on synergies and efficiencies associated with complex natural systems and broader social and economic forces using integrative approaches to research and extension at both the farm and landscape levels. Examples include development and broad adoption of water-conserving production systems in areas of water shortage and overdraft, landscape-scale reduction of nutrient and other materials runoff from agricultural lands that contributes to major hypoxic zones, and assessment of the potential and cost for broad adoption of alternative animal production systems that address many environmental and social concerns of some dominant production systems.
The committee believes that its report identifies many of the most important challenges that U.S. agriculture faces today, but it is well aware that unforeseen threats as well as new opportunities could surface tomorrow. We hope that the sponsors of this study, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and W.K. Kellogg Foundation, as well other groups and organizations, will find the report’s conclusions and recommendation to be of value in their efforts to understand and develop sustainable agricultural systems that will meet the food, feed, fiber, and biofuel needs of a growing global population.
On behalf of the committee, we would like to express our thanks and appreciation to Robin Schoen, director of the Board of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BANR), and
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
Evonne Tang, the senior program officer responsible for our study. Without their planning, organization, and editing expertise, this large and complex report would have been impossible. We also want to thank all the BANR study staff for their support and assistance with our meetings and in preparing the final report.
Julia L. Kornegay, Chair
Richard R. Harwood, Vice-Chair
Committee on Twenty-First Century Systems Agriculture
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Acknowledgments
This report has been reviewed in draft form by persons chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards of objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
P. Stephen Baenziger, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Jon T. Biermacher, The Samuel Noble Foundation, Inc.
Juliet Christian-Smith, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security
Michael DeFelice, Pioneer Hi-Bred
Thomas Dobbs, South Dakota State University
Michael Doyle, University of Georgia
Simeon Ehui, The World Bank
Peter Gleick, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security
Temple Grandin, Colorado State University
Gary Hirshberg, Stoneyfield, Inc.
Terry Howell, U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service
R. Cesar Izaurralde, Joint Global Change Research Institute
Fred Kirschenmann, Iowa State University
Max Pfeffer, Cornell University
Keith Prasse, University of Georgia
William Raun, Oklahoma State University
Andrew Thulin, California Polytechnic State University
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4
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF FARMING PRACTICES AND APPROACHES
189
Economic Security of Sustainable Farming Systems,
189
Economic Security at the Farm Level,
191
Economics of Production Practices That Can Improve Sustainability,
192
Conservation Tillage,
192
Crop Rotations,
193
Cover Cropping,
193
Crop Nutrient Management Strategies,
194
Conservation Best Management Practices,
194
Precision Agriculture for Nutrient Management,
195
Integrated Pest Management,
196
Business and Marketing Diversification Strategies,
196
Value-Trait Marketing,
197
Direct Marketing,
198
Agritourism and Fee Hunting,
200
Off-Farm Income,
201
Quality of Life and Sustainable Farming System,
201
Socioeconomic Aspects of Sustainability at the Community Level,
202
Farm Labor Conditions and Security,
202
Community Economic Security,
203
Farming Practices for Improving Sustainability and Community Economic Security,
203
Civic Agriculture, Local Foods, and Community Economic Security,
205
Community Well-Being,
206
Food Security, Safety, Quality, and Other Socioeconomic Dimensions,
207
Satisfying Human Food, Feed, and Fiber Needs,
207
Sustainable Agriculture and Food Access,
207
Food Safety,
208
Bacterial Pathogens in Natural Fertilizers and Irrigation Water,
208
Fungal Pathogens,
209
Pesticide Residue,
209
Food Quality and Nutritional Completeness,
210
Next Generation of Farmers,
210
Summary,
211
References,
212
5
EXAMPLES OF FARMING SYSTEM TYPES FOR IMPROVING SUSTAINABILITY
221
Organic Cropping Systems,
222
Principles and Practices of Organic Farming,
223
Impact on Productivity and Environmental Sustainability,
224
Yield,
224
Nutrient Cycling and Soil Quality,
226
Water Quality,
226
Weeds,
227
Greenhouse-Gas Emissions,
228
Economic Impact,
228
Social Impact,
230
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Labor Practices,
230
Food Adequacy,
231
Food Quality and Nutritional Completeness,
232
Community Well-Being,
233
Alternative Livestock Production Systems,
233
Integrated Crop–Livestock Systems,
234
Management-Intensive Rotational Grazing Systems,
235
Environmental Impact of MIRG Systems,
235
Soil Quality and Soil Erosion,
236
Carbon, Greenhouse Gas, and Nutrient Dynamics,
237
Biodiversity,
239
Economic Performance of MIRG Systems,
239
Social Performance of MIRG Systems,
240
Labor Practices,
240
Impact on Human Nutrition and Health,
240
Low-Confinement Integrated Hog-Producing Systems,
241
Forces of Change in the Hog Sector,
241
Guiding Principles,
242
Environmental Impact of Low-Confinement Hog Systems,
244
Nutrient Cycling, Odor Control, and Greenhouse-Gas Emissions,
244
Landscape Diversity, Soil Quality, and Soil Erosion,
245
Economic Impact of Low-Confinement Systems,
246
Farm Operations,
246
Marketing,
247
Social Impact of Low-Confinement Hog Systems,
248
Labor Use and Working Conditions,
248
Meat Quality,
248
Public Reaction,
249
Summary,
249
Perennial Agriculture Systems,
249
Perennial Grain System,
250
Impact,
251
Perennial Grasses for Biofuels,
251
Impact on Food Security,
251
Environmental Impact,
252
Economic Impact,
252
Gaps in Existing Science at the Systems Level,
253
Design Within Systems Types,
253
Holistic Comparisons Between Farming Systems Types,
255
Biogeophysical Landscape-Level Sustainability Analysis and Planning,
255
Summary,
258
References,
259
6
DRIVERS AND CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING THE TRANSITION TO SUSTAINABLE FARMING PRACTICES
271
Agricultural Markets as Contextual Factors,
272
Concentration in the Agrifood System,
272
Markets for Farm Inputs,
273
Markets for Products,
274
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Emerging Markets,
275
Changes in Consumer Preferences,
275
Sustainability Initiatives,
276
Organic Food Markets,
276
Direct-Sales Markets,
278
Farmers’ Markets and Farm Stands,
279
Community Supported Agriculture,
279
Farm to Institutions,
280
Grades, Standards, and Certification Labels,
280
Grades and Standards,
281
Sustainable Agriculture Standards, Certification, and Eco-Label Programs,
282
Marketing Institutions for Mid-Sized Commercial Farmers: Branding,
283
Emerging Markets for Ecosystem Services,
285
Payment for Environmental Services: Beneficiary Pays,
286
Cap-and-Trade,
289
Offsets or Conservation Credit Trading,
289
Role of Valuation of Ecosystem Services,
291
Public Policy as a Contextual Factor,
291
The Food, Conservation and Energy Act of 2008,
291
Commodity Support Programs,
292
Crop Insurance and Disaster Payments,
294
Conservation Programs,
295
Nutritional Assistance Programs,
297
Trade Policies,
298
Energy Policy,
299
Environmental Regulation,
301
Clean Air Act,
301
Clean Water Act,
301
Food Quality Protection Act,
302
Food Safety Guidelines and Standards,
303
Endangered Species Act,
304
Water Use Policies,
304
Surface Water,
305
Ground Water,
306
Conjunctive Use,
307
Animal Welfare Regulations,
307
Knowledge Institutions as Contextual Factors,
307
Publicly Funded Agricultural Research and Extension,
308
Land-Grant Universities,
308
U.S. Department of Agriculture,
308
Distribution of Federal Funds for Agricultural Research,
309
Broadening Review of Public Competitive Grant Programs,
311
Private Sector Agricultural Research,
312
Division of Labor Between Public and Private Agricultural Research,
314
Expanding Beyond Productivity Research,
314
Federal Sustainable Agriculture Research Programs,
316
State and Civil Society Support for Sustainable Agriculture,
317
University Sustainable Agriculture Programs,
318
Cooperative Extension,
318
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Farmer Participation and Innovation in Research and Development,
320
Structuring Systems Research for Improving Agricultural Sustainability,
322
Stakeholders and Social Movements,
323
A Brief History of Agricultural Stakeholders and Social Movements,
323
Diversity of Farmer Responses to Contexts,
326
Local Conditions and Farm Sustainability,
327
Farm and Farmer Characteristics and the Use of Sustainable Agricultural Practices,
328
Farm Characteristics,
328
Implications for the Adoption of Farming Systems for Improving Sustainability,
329
Farmer Knowledge, Skills, and Perceptions,
331
Farmer Values, Goals, and Perceptions,
332
Summary,
333
Markets,
333
Public Policies,
334
Knowledge Institutions,
335
Stakeholders and Social Movements,
336
Diversity of Farmer Responses,
336
References,
337
7
ILLUSTRATIVE CASE STUDIES
351
Follow-Up of the Case Studies Featured in Alternative Agriculture,
353
Status of the Farms,
353
Commonalities Among the Farms,
355
Mormon Trail Farm,
357
Farming Philosophy,
357
Management Features,
357
Crop Rotations and the Soil,
357
Livestock,
358
Learning Networks,
360
Use of Government Programs,
360
Trial of Organic Production,
361
Benefits from the Biofuel Industry,
361
Summary and Future Outlook,
361
Ferrari Farms, Inc.,
362
Farming Philosophy,
362
Management Features,
362
Crops,
362
Pest Management,
362
Fertility Management,
363
Labor Management,
363
Equipment,
363
Marketing,
363
Learning Networks,
364
Performance Indicators,
364
Key Changes,
364
Challenges,
365
Summary and Future Outlook,
365
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Brookview Farm,
366
Farming Philosophy,
366
Management Features,
366
Crop Management,
366
Weed Management,
367
Fertility Management,
367
Livestock,
367
Environmental Management,
367
Marketing,
368
Learning Networks,
369
Performance Indicators,
369
Key Changes,
370
Challenges,
370
Summary and Future Outlook,
370
Lundberg Family Farms,
371
Farming Philosophy,
371
Management Features,
371
Operations,
371
Crop Management,
371
Weed, Pest, and Disease Management,
372
Fertility Management,
372
Energy Use,
373
Environmental Management,
373
Labor Management,
373
Marketing,
373
Learning Networks,
374
Performance Indicators,
374
Key Changes,
375
Challenges,
375
Summary and Future Outlook,
376
Pavich Family Farms,
377
Farming Philosophy,
377
Learning Networks,
377
Key Changes,
377
Challenges,
378
Summary and Future Outlook,
378
Thompson Farm,
380
Farming Philosophy,
380
Management Features,
380
Crops,
380
Weed and Pest Management,
380
Livestock,
381
Equipment,
381
Labor,
381
Marketing,
381
Learning Networks,
381
Performance Indicators,
382
Key Changes,
383
Challenges,
383
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Summary and Future Outlook,
383
Green Cay Farm and Green Cay Produce,
385
Farming Philosophy,
385
Management Features,
385
Crops,
385
Pest Management,
386
Fertility Management,
386
Marketing,
386
Labor,
386
Learning Networks,
386
Key Changes,
387
Challenges,
388
Summary and Future Outlook,
388
New Case Studies,
390
Production Challenges,
392
Soil Management,
392
Weed, Pest, and Disease Management,
393
Water Management,
393
Energy Management,
393
Management of Livestock,
394
Socioeconomic Issues,
395
Economic Viability,
395
Marketing,
395
Labor,
395
Information Sources and Knowledge of Production,
396
Government Programs and Policies,
397
Lessons Learned,
397
Bragger Farm,
402
Background and History,
402
Farm Production System,
402
Land,
402
Soils and Fertility,
403
Crops,
404
Farming Practices,
404
Pest Management,
405
Weed Management,
405
Equipment and Buildings,
405
Livestock Enterprises,
406
Dairy,
406
Beef Cattle,
407
Heifers,
407
Pullets,
407
Labor,
407
Manure and Nutrient Management Issues,
408
Other Land Enterprises,
408
Natural Resources, Energy, and Climate Change,
409
Marketing, Business Management, and Financials,
409
Marketing and Business Management,
409
Use of Federal and Conservation Programs,
410
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Social and Community Considerations,
410
Social and Community Interactions,
410
Farm Succession,
411
Risks, Challenges, and Changes,
411
Sustainability,
411
Observations and Conclusions,
412
Radiance Dairy,
413
Background and History of the Farm,
413
Farm Production System,
414
Pasture Management,
414
Livestock,
415
Herd Health,
416
Livestock Waste,
417
On-Farm Dairy Processing,
417
Labor,
418
Farm Equipment,
418
Natural Resources, Energy, and Climate Change,
418
Water and Air Issues,
418
Energy and Carbon Concerns,
419
Marketing, Business Management, and Financials,
419
Marketing,
419
Certifications,
420
Finance and Business Management,
420
Social and Community Considerations,
421
Risks, Challenges, and Changes,
421
Observations and Conclusions,
421
Straus Family Creamery,
423
Background and History,
423
Farm Production System,
424
Farm Production,
424
Herd Management,
424
Pasture and Silage,
425
Fertility and Nutrient Management,
425
Pest Management Concerns,
425
Creamery,
426
Production,
426
Product Line,
426
Packaging,
426
Plant Procedures and Issues,
427
Labor: Farm and Creamery,
427
Further Business, Marketing, and Financial Considerations,
428
Organic Certification,
428
Natural Resources, Energy, and Climate Change,
428
Energy,
428
Water,
429
Waste,
429
Local Environment,
429
Distribution and Markets,
430
Social and Community Considerations,
431
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Sustainability,
432
Risks, Challenges, and Changes,
432
Full Belly Farm,
433
Background and History,
433
Farm Production System,
434
Planting and Rotations,
435
Tillage,
435
Weed Management,
436
Pest Management,
436
Animals,
436
Nutrient Management,
437
Equipment,
437
Natural Resources, Energy, and Climate Change,
438
Energy,
438
Biodiversity,
438
Water,
438
Marketing, Business Management, and Financials,
438
Marketing,
438
Pricing,
439
Finances,
440
Social and Community Considerations,
440
Labor,
440
Internships,
440
Community Outreach and Connections,
441
Further Community Considerations,
441
Risks and Challenges,
442
Supply and Farmer Cooperation,
442
Ripples from Food Safety Incidents in Larger Food System,
442
Transitions into Farming,
442
Research,
443
Government Programs,
443
Observations and Conclusions,
443
Peregrine Farm,
445
Background and History,
445
Farm Production System,
446
Soils and Fertility Management,
447
Weed, Pest, and Disease Management,
447
Animals,
447
Labor,
448
Equipment,
448
Marketing, Business Management, and Financials,
448
Marketing,
448
Certifications,
448
Business Management,
449
Finance,
449
Social and Community Considerations,
449
Markets as Community,
449
Outreach,
450
Government Programs,
450
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
Learning and Obtaining Information,
450
Food Safety,
450
Labor Practices and Mentoring Workers,
450
Natural Resource Issues, Energy, and Climate Change,
451
Water,
451
Energy and Recycling,
451
Climate Change,
451
Risks, Challenges, and Changes,
451
Sustainability,
451
Observations and Conclusions,
452
Stahlbush Island Farms,
453
Background and History,
453
Farm Production System,
455
Soils and Fertility,
455
Rotations,
456
Weed Management,
456
Pest Management,
456
Rainfall and Irrigation,
457
Equipment,
457
Natural Resource, Energy, and Climate Change,
457
Water,
457
Wildlife and Biodiversity,
458
Energy,
458
Marketing, Business Management, and Financials,
458
Audits and Certifications,
459
Social and Community Considerations,
460
Labor and Staffing,
460
Community Support, Service, and Recognition,
460
Sustainability,
460
Research and Policy Concerns,
461
Research,
461
Policy Concerns,
461
Observations and Conclusions,
462
Goldmine Farm,
463
Background and History,
463
Farm Production System,
464
Soils and Fertility Management,
464
Cropping System and Yields,
465
Production Practices,
465
Pest and Disease Management,
466
Livestock,
466
Equipment,
467
Natural Resources, Energy, and Climate Change,
468
Marketing, Business Management, and Financials,
468
Marketing and Organic Certification,
468
Financial,
469
Risk Management and Insurance,
469
Social and Community Considerations,
469
Labor,
469
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
Community Involvement,
470
Observations on Access to Organic Food,
470
Research and Policy Concerns,
470
Farm Programs,
470
Research Participation and Needs,
470
Sustainability,
471
Farm Transition Issues,
471
Labor as a Limiting Factor,
471
Observations and Conclusions,
472
Rosmann Family Farm,
473
Background and History,
473
Farm Production System,
474
Crops,
474
Planting,
474
Yields,
474
Inputs,
474
Livestock,
475
Hogs,
475
Cattle,
475
Poultry,
476
Pest Management,
476
Pasture Management,
476
Equipment,
477
Labor,
477
Nutrient Management,
477
Natural Resources, Energy, and Climate Change,
478
Water,
478
Energy and Carbon Concerns,
478
Marketing, Business Management, and Financial,
478
Marketing,
478
Certifications,
479
Finance and Business Management,
479
Social and Community Considerations,
479
Federal Farm Programs,
480
Risk, Challenges, and Changes,
481
Observations and Conclusions,
481
Zenner Farm,
482
Background and History,
482
Farm Production System,
483
Soils and Growing Conditions,
483
Crops and Rotations,
483
Fertility Program,
484
Direct Seeding,
484
Disease and Pest Management Issues,
485
Natural Resources and Wildlife Concerns,
486
Marketing, Business Management, and Financials,
486
Financials,
488
Social and Community Considerations,
488
Labor,
488
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Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century
Learning,
488
Community Relations and Service,
489
Risks, Challenges, and Changes,
490
Research Needs,
490
Transportation,
490
Farm Transition Concerns,
491
Government Programs and Policy Involvement,
491
Observations and Conclusions,
492
8
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: “LESSONS LEARNED” FROM THE UNITED STATES
493
The Importance of Context,
494
Evolving Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa,
494
Lessons Learned from the Green Revolution,
494
A Second Green Revolution,
495
Long-Term Evolution Towards Sustainability in Sub-Saharan Africa,
496
Considerations of U.S. “Lessons” Learned,
497
Transferability of Agricultural Practices for Improving Sustainability,
497
Summary,
514
References,
515
9
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
519
What is Sustainable Agriculture?,
520
Defining Sustainable Agriculture,
520
Measuring Progress Toward Sustainability,
521
Toward Agricultural Sustainability in the 21st Century,
521
Incremental Approach to Improving U.S. Agricultural Sustainability,
522
Transformative Approach to Improving U.S. Agricultural Sustainability,
524
A Systems Approach to Agricultural Research,
527
Key Drivers of Change: Markets and Federal and Local Policies,
531
Relevance of Lessons Learned to Sub-Saharan Africa,
532
In Closing,
533
APPENDIXES
A Statement of Task
537
B Biographical Sketches
539
C Presentations to the Committee on 21st Century Systems Agriculture
545
D Follow-up of the 1989 Case Studies Featured in Alternative Agriculture Report: Topics of Discussion During Telephone Interview
549
E Dairy Farms: Topics of Discussion During On-Farm Interview
551
F Grain Farms: Topics of Discussion During On-Farm Interview
559
G Specialty-Crop Farms: Topics of Discussion During On-Farm Interview
565
