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ACRP
AIRPORT
COOPERATIVE
RESEARCH
PROGRAM
SYNTHESIS 12
Sponsored by
Preventing VehicleAircraft the Federal
Incidents During Winter Aviation Administration
Operations and Periods
of Low Visibility
A Synthesis of Airport Practice
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ACRP OVERSIGHT COMMITTEE* TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2008 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE*
CHAIR OFFICERS
JAMES WILDING Chair: Debra L. Miller, Secretary, Kansas DOT, Topeka
Independent Consultant Vice Chair: Adib K. Kanafani, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley
VICE CHAIR Executive Director: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board
JEFF HAMIEL
MEMBERS
MinneapolisSt. Paul
Metropolitan Airports Commission J. BARRY BARKER, Executive Director, Transit Authority of River City, Louisville, KY
ALLEN D. BIEHLER, Secretary, Pennsylvania DOT, Harrisburg
MEMBERS JOHN D. BOWE, President, Americas Region, APL Limited, Oakland, CA
LARRY L. BROWN, SR., Executive Director, Mississippi DOT, Jackson
JAMES CRITES
DEBORAH H. BUTLER, Executive Vice President, Planning, and CIO, Norfolk Southern
DallasFt. Worth International Airport
Corporation, Norfolk, VA
RICHARD DE NEUFVILLE
WILLIAM A.V. CLARK, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
DAVID S. EKERN, Commissioner, Virginia DOT, Richmond
KEVIN C. DOLLIOLE
NICHOLAS J. GARBER, Henry L. Kinnier Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
UCG Associates
University of Virginia, Charlottesville
JOHN K. DUVAL
JEFFREY W. HAMIEL, Executive Director, Metropolitan Airports Commission, Minneapolis, MN
Beverly Municipal Airport
EDWARD A. (NED) HELME, President, Center for Clean Air Policy, Washington, DC
STEVE GROSSMAN
WILL KEMPTON, Director, California DOT, Sacramento
Oakland International Airport
SUSAN MARTINOVICH, Director, Nevada DOT, Carson City
TOM JENSEN
MICHAEL D. MEYER, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia
National Safe Skies Alliance
Institute of Technology, Atlanta
CATHERINE M. LANG
MICHAEL R. MORRIS, Director of Transportation, North Central Texas Council of Governments,
Federal Aviation Administration
Arlington
GINA MARIE LINDSEY
NEIL J. PEDERSEN, Administrator, Maryland State Highway Administration, Baltimore
Los Angeles World Airports
PETE K. RAHN, Director, Missouri DOT, Jefferson City
CAROLYN MOTZ
SANDRA ROSENBLOOM, Professor of Planning, University of Arizona, Tucson
Hagerstown Regional Airport
TRACY L. ROSSER, Vice President, Corporate Traffic, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., Bentonville, AR
RICHARD TUCKER
ROSA CLAUSELL ROUNTREE, Executive Director, Georgia State Road and Tollway Authority,
Huntsville International Airport
Atlanta
HENRY G. (GERRY) SCHWARTZ, JR., Chairman (retired), Jacobs/Sverdrup Civil, Inc.,
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
St. Louis, MO
SABRINA JOHNSON C. MICHAEL WALTON, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Texas, Austin
RICHARD MARCHI LINDA S. WATSON, CEO, LYNXCentral Florida Regional Transportation Authority, Orlando
Airports Council International-- STEVE WILLIAMS, Chairman and CEO, Maverick Transportation, Inc., Little Rock, AR
North America
LAURA McKEE EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Air Transport Association of America
THAD ALLEN (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC
HENRY OGRODZINSKI
JOSEPH H. BOARDMAN, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S.DOT
National Association of State Aviation
REBECCA M. BREWSTER, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute,
Officials
Smyrna, GA
MELISSA SABATINE
PAUL R. BRUBAKER, Research and Innovative Technology Administrator, U.S.DOT
American Association of Airport
GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, Chancellor, Polytechnic University of New York, Brooklyn, and Foreign
Executives
Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, DC
ROBERT E. SKINNER, JR.
SEAN T. CONNAUGHTON, Maritime Administrator, U.S.DOT
Transportation Research Board
LEROY GISHI, Chief, Division of Transportation, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department
of the Interior, Washington, DC
SECRETARY
EDWARD R. HAMBERGER, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC
CHRISTOPHER W. JENKS JOHN H. HILL, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
Transportation Research Board JOHN C. HORSLEY, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC
CARL T. JOHNSON, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT
J. EDWARD JOHNSON, Director, Applied Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, John C. Stennis Space Center, MS
DAVID KELLY, Acting Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S.DOT
THOMAS J. MADISON, JR., Administrator, Federal Highway Administration, U.S.DOT
WILLIAM W. MILLAR, President, American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
JAMES S. SIMPSON, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S.DOT
ROBERT A. STURGELL, Acting Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S.DOT
ROBERT L. VAN ANTWERP (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commanding
General, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC
*Membership as of June 2008. *Membership as of October 2008.
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AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
ACRP SYNTHESIS 12
Preventing VehicleAircraft
Incidents During Winter
Operations and Periods
of Low Visibility
A Synthesis of Airport Practice
CONSULTANT
STEPHEN M. QUILTY
SMQ Airport Services
Lutz, Florida
S UBJECT A REA
Aviation
Research Sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
WASHINGTON, D.C.
2008
www.TRB.org
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AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM ACRP SYNTHESIS 12
Airports are vital national resources. They serve a key role in Project 11-03, Topic S04-02
transportation of people and goods and in regional, national, and ISSN 1935-9187
international commerce. They are where the nation's aviation sys- ISBN 978-0-309-09818-2
tem connects with other modes of transportation and where federal Library of Congress Control Number 2008907271
responsibility for managing and regulating air traffic operations
intersects with the role of state and local governments that own and © 2008 Transportation Research Board
operate most airports. Research is necessary to solve common oper-
ating problems, to adapt appropriate new technologies from other
industries, and to introduce innovations into the airport industry. COPYRIGHT PERMISSION
The Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) serves as one Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for
of the principal means by which the airport industry can develop obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the
innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it. copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein.
The need for ACRP was identified in TRB Special Report 272: Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce
Airport Research Needs: Cooperative Solutions in 2003, based on material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes.
a study sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will
The ACRP carries out applied research on problems that are shared be used to imply TRB or FAA endorsement of a particular product, method,
by airport operating agencies and are not being adequately or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this
addressed by existing federal research programs. It is modeled after document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate
the successful National Cooperative Highway Research Program acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For
and Transit Cooperative Research Program. The ACRP undertakes other uses of the material, request permission from CRP.
research and other technical activities in a variety of airport subject
areas, including design, construction, maintenance, operations,
safety, security, policy, planning, human resources, and adminis- NOTICE
tration. The ACRP provides a forum where airport operators can
cooperatively address common operational problems. The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Airport
The ACRP was authorized in December 2003 as part of the Cooperative Research Program conducted by the Transportation Research
Vision 100-Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act. The primary Board with the approval of the Governing Board of the National Research
participants in the ACRP are (1) an independent governing board, Council. Such approval reflects the Governing Board's judgment that the
the ACRP Oversight Committee (AOC), appointed by the Secretary project concerned is appropriate with respect to both the purposes and
of the U.S. Department of Transportation with representation from resources of the National Research Council.
airport operating agencies, other stakeholders, and relevant indus- The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this
try organizations such as the Airports Council International-North project and to review this report were chosen for recognized scholarly
America (ACI-NA), the American Association of Airport Execu- competence and with due consideration for the balance of disciplines
tives (AAAE), the National Association of State Aviation Officials appropriate to the project. The opinions and conclusions expressed or
implied are those of the research agency that performed the research, and
(NASAO), and the Air Transport Association (ATA) as vital links
while they have been accepted as appropriate by the technical panel, they
to the airport community; (2) the TRB as program manager and sec-
are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National
retariat for the governing board; and (3) the FAA as program spon-
Research Council, or the Federal Aviation Administration of the U.S.
sor. In October 2005, the FAA executed a contract with the National
Department of Transportation.
Academies formally initiating the program. Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical
The ACRP benefits from the cooperation and participation of air- panel according to procedures established and monitored by the
port professionals, air carriers, shippers, state and local government Transportation Research Board Executive Committee and the Governing
officials, equipment and service suppliers, other airport users, and Board of the National Research Council.
research organizations. Each of these participants has different
interests and responsibilities, and each is an integral part of this
cooperative research effort.
Research problem statements for the ACRP are solicited period- The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, the National
ically but may be submitted to the TRB by anyone at any time. It is Research Council, and the Federal Aviation Administration (sponsor of
the responsibility of the AOC to formulate the research program by the Airport Cooperative Research Program) do not endorse products or
identifying the highest priority projects and defining funding levels manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers' names appear herein solely because
and expected products. they are considered essential to the clarity and completeness of the project
Once selected, each ACRP project is assigned to an expert panel, reporting.
appointed by the TRB. Panels include experienced practitioners and
research specialists; heavy emphasis is placed on including airport
professionals, the intended users of the research products. The panels
prepare project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors,
and provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the Published reports of the
project. The process for developing research problem statements and
selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing coop- AIRPORT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
erative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activities, are available from:
ACRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation.
Primary emphasis is placed on disseminating ACRP results to the Transportation Research Board
intended end-users of the research: airport operating agencies, service Business Office
500 Fifth Street, NW
providers, and suppliers. The ACRP produces a series of research Washington, DC 20001
reports for use by airport operators, local agencies, the FAA, and other
interested parties, and industry associations may arrange for work- and can be ordered through the Internet at
http://www.national-academies.org/trb/bookstore
shops, training aids, field visits, and other activities to ensure that
results are implemented by airport-industry practitioners. Printed in the United States of America
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished schol-
ars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology
and to their use for the general welfare. On the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in
1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and techni-
cal matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration
and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for
advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs
aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achieve-
ments of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the
services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining
to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of
Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, on its own initiative,
to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the
Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate
the broad community of science and technology with the Academys í p urposes of furthering knowledge and
advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Acad-
emy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences
and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scien-
tific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both the Academies and the Insti-
tute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively,
of the National Research Council.
The Transportation Research Board is one of six major divisions of the National Research Council. The
mission of the Transportation Research Board is to provide leadership in transportation innovation and
progress through research and information exchange, conducted within a setting that is objective, interdisci-
plinary, and multimodal. The Board's varied activities annually engage about 7,000 engineers, scientists, and
other transportation researchers and practitioners from the public and private sectors and academia, all of
whom contribute their expertise in the public interest. The program is supported by state transportation depart-
ments, federal agencies including the component administrations of the U.S. Department of Transportation,
and other organizations and individuals interested in the development of transportation. www.TRB.org
www.national-academies.org
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ACRP COMMITTEE FOR PROJECT 11-03 COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS STAFF
CHRISTOPHER W. JENKS, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
CHAIR CRAWFORD F. JENCKS, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research
BURR STEWART Programs
Port of Seattle ROBERT E. DAVID, Senior Program Officer
EILEEN DELANEY, Director of Publications
MEMBERS
GARY C. CATHEY ACRP SYNTHESIS STAFF
California Department of Transportation STEPHEN R. GODWIN, Director for Studies and Special Programs
KEVIN C. DOLLIOLE JON M. WILLIAMS, Associate Director, IDEA and Synthesis Studies
Unison Consulting, Inc. GAIL STABA, Senior Program Officer
BERTA FERNANDEZ DON TIPPMAN, Editor
Landrum & Brown CHERYL KEITH, Senior Program Assistant
JULIE KENFIELD
Jacobs TOPIC PANEL
CAROLYN MOTZ BRYAN CORBETT, Massachusetts Port Authority
Hagerstown Regional Airport CHRISTINE GERENCHER, Transportation Research Board
STEVE JOHNSON, Grand Forks Regional Airport Authority
FAA LIAISON MARK KREUTZFELDT, Wausau Everest, LLP, New Berlin, WI
LORI PAGNANELLI DAVE LEPINE, Kadrmas, Lee & Jackson, Rapid City, SD
THOMAS E. LONG, Allegheny County (PA) Airport Authority
ACINORTH AMERICA LIAISON C. DANIEL PRATHER, Middle Tennessee State University
A. J. MULDOON OVID SEIFERS, Eagle County (CO) Regional Airport
BIRKELY RHODES, Federal Aviation Administration (Liaison)
TRB LIAISON
CHRISTINE GERENCHER
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FOREWORD Airport administrators, engineers, and researchers often face problems for which infor-
mation already exists, either in documented form or as undocumented experience and prac-
tice. This information may be fragmented, scattered, and unevaluated. As a consequence,
full knowledge of what has been learned about a problem may not be brought to bear on its
solution. Costly research findings may go unused, valuable experience may be overlooked,
and due consideration may not be given to recommended practices for solving or alleviat-
ing the problem.
There is information on nearly every subject of concern to the airport industry. Much of
it derives from research or from the work of practitioners faced with problems in their day-
to-day work. To provide a systematic means for assembling and evaluating such useful
information and to make it available to the entire airport community, the Airport Coop-
erative Research Program authorized the Transportation Research Board to undertake a
continuing project. This project, ACRP Project 11-03, "Synthesis of Information Related
to Airport Practices," searches out and synthesizes useful knowledge from all available
sources and prepares concise, documented reports on specific topics. Reports from this
endeavor constitute an ACRP report series, Synthesis of Airport Practice.
This synthesis series reports on current knowledge and practice, in a compact format,
without the detailed directions usually found in handbooks or design manuals. Each report
in the series provides a compendium of the best knowledge available on those measures
found to be the most successful in resolving specific problems.
PREFACE This synthesis study is intended to inform airport operators about factors affecting safe
By Gail Staba winter operations and the prevention of runway incursions by airport snow removal equip-
Senior Program Officer ment operators. The information contained in this report can be of value to airport opera-
Transportation tors in their efforts to provide a safer operating environment when engaged in snow and ice
Research Board removal operations during normal and low visibility conditions.
Information used in this study was acquired through a review of the literature and inter-
views with airport operators and industry experts.
Stephen M. Quilty, SMQ Airport Services, Lutz, Florida, collected and synthesized the
information and wrote the report. The members of the topic panel are acknowledged on the
preceding page. This synthesis is an immediately useful document that records the practices
that were acceptable within the limitations of the knowledge available at the time of its
preparation. As progress in research and practice continues, new knowledge will be added
to that now at hand.
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CONTENTS
1 SUMMARY
3 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Objective of Synthesis, 3
Definition of Incursion, 3
Background on Incursions, 5
Regulations, 5
Vehicle/Pedestrian Deviations, 6
Research Methodology, 8
Conclusions from Literature Review, 9
Summary, 11
12 CHAPTER TWO FACTORS AFFECTING COLLISION RISKS
Communication, 12
Environment, 12
Human Performance, 13
Situational Awareness, 13
Time Pressures, 13
Personnel, Vehicles, and Equipment Resources, 13
Operational Factors, 13
Summary, 14
15 CHAPTER THREE COMMUNICATION
Radio Communication Protocols, 15
Operator Distraction, 17
Airport Condition Reporting Protocols, 18
Summary, 20
21 CHAPTER FOUR ENVIRONMENT
Visibility, 21
Managing Environmental Conditions, 21
Summary, 22
23 CHAPTER FIVE HUMAN PERFORMANCE
Fatigue, 23
Fatigue as an Issue, 23
Fatigue Factors and Causes, 24
Fatigue Mitigation and Management, 25
Summary, 27
29 CHAPTER SIX SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Introduction, 29
Improving Situational Awareness, 30
Summary, 31
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32 CHAPTER SEVEN PRESSURES TO KEEP THE RUNWAY OPEN
Time Pressures, 32
Managing Pressures, 33
Summary, 34
35 CHAPTER EIGHT VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT RESOURCES
Vehicle Design, 35
Snow Removal Equipment, 36
Summary, 37
38 CHAPTER NINE OPERATIONAL FACTORS
Avoiding or Preventing Incursions, 38
Ensuring Vehicles Are Clear of a Runway, 40
Driver Training, 41
Driver Training Technology, 42
Summary, 43
44 CHAPTER TEN PAST, CURRENT, AND FUTURE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Airport Surface Detection Equipment Model 3, 44
Airport Movement Area Safety System, 44
Airport Surface Detection Equipment-X, 44
Airport Target Identification System, 44
Low Cost Surface Surveillance, 45
Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast, 45
Runway Status Lights, 45
Global Positioning System Vehicle Tracking, 45
Loop Technology, 45
Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal, 45
Driver-Enhanced Vision Systems, 45
Microwave Motion Sensors, 46
Ground Marker System, 46
Laser Light Hold Lines, 46
Addressable Message Boards, 46
In-Ground Light Emitting Diode, 46
Runway Guard Lights, 46
Enhanced Runway Lead-On Lights, 46
Enhanced Taxiway Surface Markings, 46
Summary, 47
48 CHAPTER ELEVEN CONCLUSIONS
50 REFERENCES
54 BIBLIOGRAPHY
56 ACRONYMS
57 APPENDIX A SURVEY INSTRUMENT
59 APPENDIX B AIRPORT RESPONDENTS
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60 APPENDIX C REPORTS FROM THE AVIATION SAFETY REPORTING SYSTEM
(ASRS)
70 APPENDIX D RESOURCE LIST
