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OCR for page 35
4
Management of Breeding Colonies
REPRODUCTION
To maintain the breeding efficiency of a colony or to breed an impor-
tant individual dog successfully, staff must understand the unique reproduc-
tive characteristics of dogs. The biology of canine reproduction has been
extensively reviewed (Burke, 1 986; Christiansen, 1 984; Concannon, 1 99 1;
Concannon and Lein, 1989; Concannon et al., 1989~. Information on herita-
bility of physical and other characteristics of dogs, Mendelian genetics of
breeding, the incidence and characteristics of diseases that have a genetic
basis, and methods for demonstrating heritability is also available (Patterson,
1975; Patterson et al., 1989; Shultz, 1970; Willis, 1989~.
Reproductive Cycle of the Bitch
Most bitches can become pregnant once or twice a year. Each ovarian
cycle consists of the following phases:
.
A follicular phase, or proestrus, during which there is progressive
vulval swelling and a serosanguineous (bloody) vaginal discharge. During
this period, which can last from 3 days to 3 weeks, the bitch's blood has
high concentrations of estrogen. The male will show interest, but he either
does not or is not allowed to mount.
.
A periovulatory period, or estrus, during which estrogen declines
35
OCR for page 36
36
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
and progesterone increases as the ovarian corpora lutea form This period
is also the early luteal phase of the cycle. During estrus, which can last
from 3 days to 3 weeks, the bitch assumes a characteristic posture in the
presence of a male in which the rump is raised and there is a curvature of
the back (lordosis) and the tail is held to one side (flagging). The male is
allowed to mount, and copulation occurs.
· A midluteal and late luteal phase or metestrus (either pregnant or
nonpregnant metestrus', which lasts about 2 months and during which se-
rum progesterone remains elevated above 1 ng/ml.
· A period of weak ovarian activity, or anestrus, lasting 2-10 months,
in which progesterone concentration is low, and there is no evidence of
estrogen stimulation of the uterus or vulva.
In constant photoperiods of 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness
or 14 hours of light and 10 hours of darkness, estrous periods should occur
with equal incidence throughout the year. Possible effects of constant light
With natural circannual changes in photoperiod,
bitches come into estrus more frequently in winter and spring months than
in summer and autumn months. In most breeds, the interval between es-
trous periods averages 7-8 months. After the age of 8 years, however, the
interval between cycles begins to lengthen, reaching 12 months or longer by
the age of 12 years (Andersen and Simpson, 1973~.
Successful breeding requires that observation of reproductive condi-
tions be given high priority, and staff must be able to recognize the start of
proestrus. A swollen vulva might not be obvious on a dark or long-haired
dog, and bitches often lick away the bloody discharge; therefore, the vulva
of each breeding bitch must be examined closely two or three times a week,
beginning 4 months after estrus.
Vaginal cytology can be useful for estimating the best time for breeding
(Concannon and DiGregorio, 1986; Hoist, 1986; Olson et al., 1984) and
predicting the time of whelping, which will be 55-60 days after a change in
the smear indicates late estrus. Vaginal smears in anestrus are nondescript,
with a few leukocytes and small epithelial cells. In early proestrus, smears
include a high proportion of rounded epithelial cells, erythrocytes, and sometimes
a few leukocytes. During midproestrus, there is an increasing percentage of
cornified (flakelike) epithelial cells but no leukocytes. All or nearly all
epithelial cells in the smear are cornified from 2-8 days before ovulation
until 4-9 days after ovulation, when these cells predictably and abruptly
decline. In early metestrus, cornified cells are replaced by rounded, smaller
superficial cells, and there is usually an influx of leukocytes. The metestrus
smear slowly regresses to the nondescript anestrus smear. Smears should
be taken from the anterior vagina. They should be obtained and prepared
carefully with saline-moistened swabs and should not be contaminated with
have not been studied.
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MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING COLONIES
37
vulval material. In the case of bitches that have had reproductive problems,
when a successful breeding is important, or both, more accurate predictions
can be made by monitoring the progesterone concentration in the serum or
plasma with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit (Bouchard
et al., 1991a; Hegstad and Johnston, 1992; Johnston and Romagnoli, 19914.
In this test, ovulation occurs a mean of 1-2 days after the initial rise in
progesterone, peak fertility a mean of 0-4 days after the initial rise, loss of
fertility 6-11 days after, implantation 18-20 days after, and parturition 63-
65 days after (Concannon, 1991~.
Mating
Theoretically, it is sufficient to maintain one male for every 10-20
females; however, in practice this ratio might not be adequate, for several
reasons. First, a bitch in proestrus produces pheromones that will start
proestrus in other bitches in the colony, making it likely that several bitches
will be in estrus simultaneously. Because mating an individual male more
often than once each day can reduce its sperm output after 1 week (Amann,
1986), a greater ratio of males to females might be required to maintain
breeding efficiency. Second, except under special circumstances, such as
reproducing a disease model, breeding programs should conscientiously avoid
inbreeding, and it has been estimated that a ratio greater than two males for
each 10 females is needed to prevent an increase in the coefficient of in-
breeding (Shultz, 1970~.
Natural Mating
Mating can be done naturally or by artificial insemination with fresh or
frozen and thawed semen. Provided that the male is healthy, it is not
necessary to take special precautions or to use medications to treat the
genitalia because the vagina is not a sterile environment. However, it is
important to ascertain that neither the dog nor the bitch has canine brucellosis,
a disease that seriously affects reproduction and is a zoonosis (see "Control
of Infectious Diseases" in Chapter 5~. The bitch is usually taken to the stud
dog's pen or cage, because a dog will often ignore the bitch or spend an
inordinate amount of time scent-marking if he is moved to new surround-
ings. The bitch should be mated on 2 or 3 days over a 3- to 5-day period.
Unless the staff is experienced in distinguishing early proestrus from estrus,
the bitch should be presented to the male for 10-15 minutes every day or
every other day from the time she is found to be in proestrus until she is
mated. Breeding pairs should not be left unattended, because some bitches
are highly selective in choosing mates and it is not uncommon for a bitch to
attack a dog that is not of her choosing. In addition, the dog might need
OCR for page 38
38
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
assistance until he attains a copulatory lock. Mating should be recorded
only on the basis of observations of copulatory locks that last several min-
utes or more. If a bitch refuses a particular dog, even when signs of estrus
(lordosis and flagging) are present, placing her with a different dog might
solve the problem. If it is important to the breeding program that a bitch be
bred to a dog that she is refusing, a caretaker should restrain her in a
manner that will prevent her biting either the caretaker or the stud dog
during breeding, or artificial insemination (AI) should be used.
To ensure accuracy of parentage, the same stud must be used for every
breeding within a single estrus to avoid multiple-sire litters. Bitches allow
dogs to mate from several days before ovulation until several days after
ovulation. Because the events of pregnancy are related to the time of
ovulation not necessarily to the time of mating parturition can occur 56-
68 days after a single mating and up to 70 days after the first of multiple
matings. Sperm can survive 6 days or more in the bitch, and ovulated eggs
can remain fertile for 3-7 days. Parturition should occur 62, 63, or 64 days
after ovulation in nearly every bitch (Concannon et al., 19831. Bitches that
whelp 56-60 days after the first mating often have small litters, probably
because they were bred at the end of the fertile period (P. Concannon, New
York State College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.
Y., unpublished).
Artificial Insemination
AI can be helpful when males cannot be moved easily within or be-
tween facilities, when breeding females with weak or selective estrus be-
havior, when using males that cannot provide natural service, and for pre-
serving valuable animal models. Semen collection, handling of semen, and
insemination are described in detail elsewhere (Christiansen, 1984; Concannon
and Battista, 1989~.
Insemination with fresh semen. Semen can be collected in a clean
paper cup or in a latex cone (artificial vagina) attached to a 15-ml conical
polypropylene centrifuge tube. An advantage of the former method is that
debris from the penis is less likely to become mixed in the ejaculate. Ejacu-
late should be maintained at room or skin temperature and should be checked
microscopically for sperm viability and malformations. Any variation from
the expected chalky white color or 1- to 5-cc volume should be recorded.
The full ejaculate should be deposited into the anterior vagina with a clean
plastic pipes attached to a syringe with nonrubber (e.g., polypropylene)
tubing. The hindquarters of the bitch should be raised for 10 minutes while
the vagina is manipulated digitally by an attendant wearing a clean glove.
The bitch should not be allowed to sit for 20 minutes, and pressure on her
OCR for page 39
MANaGEMENT OF BREEDING COLONIES
39
abdomen should be avoided. AI should be performed every other day until
two or three inseminations have been accomplished. The precise timing for
performing AI can be predicted by checking for softening of the vulva,
which often occurs around the time of ovulation; by demonstrating the
appropriate vaginal cytologic characteristics of advanced estrus; or by mea-
suring the initial rise in serum or plasma progesterone. Ideally, two insemi-
nations should occur before vaginal smears show reduced cornification.
Insemination with fresh chilled semen. Fresh semen can be diluted or
extended in one of several laboratory buffers or commercial extenders and
shipped refrigerated by overnight express for use in insemination in another
location (Concannon and Battista, 19891. At 4°C (39.2°F), sperm motility
remains nearly normal for 3-4 days if the semen is diluted in an appropriate
diluent and for 1 day if undiluted (see Morton and Bruce, 1989~.
Insemination with frozen semen. Frozen semen should be thawed and
handled according to the instructions provided by the laboratory that pro-
cessed it, because each freezing technique has stringent requirements for
rate of thawing, dilution, and site of deposition. Although sperm live for
several days in fresh semen, they normally die within a few hours after
thawing; therefore, precise timing of insemination is important for success-
ful impregnation. The best time to inseminate is usually shortly after oo-
cyte maturation, which occurs 5-6 days after the initial rise in progesterone,
around the time of a surge in leutinizing hormone. In most bitches, the
inseminations should also take place 2-4 days before the decrease in vaginal
cornification. Reported success rates for vaginal insemination range from O
to 70 percent (Concannon and Battista, 1989~; success probably depends
heavily on the freezing method and the number of viable sperm insemi-
nated. Success rates of 50-90 percent have been reported for uterine in-
semination, which is accomplished surgically or with special instrumenta-
tion to deposit sperm through the cervix (Concannon and Battista, 1989~.
Pregnancy and Parturition
Pregnancy can be determined at 25 days after ovulation by ultrasonography,
at 20-35 days after ovulation with palpation, and at 45 days after ovulation
with radiography (Johnson, 1986; Yeager and Concannon, 1990~. There are
no well-documented biochemical or immunologic canine pregnancy tests
available. Concannon (1991) has reviewed changes in body weight during
pregnancy and pregnancy-specific changes in hematocrit, serum chemistry,
and metabolism.
Whelping facilities should provide seclusion from excessive noise and
other disturbances. The whelping box should be large enough to accommo
OCR for page 40
40
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
date the bitch and pups and have sides high enough to prevent neonates
from wandering out of the box. The bottom of a large, fiberglass shipping
crate works well for beagle-size dogs. The whelping box should be pro-
vided about a week before expected parturition.
Johnson (1986) has reviewed the management of the pregnant bitch. A
nonpurulent green discharge, anorexia, and restlessness are normal just be-
fore parturition. Birth of a litter can be either rapid or protracted over much
of a day. Intervals between pups normally range from 20 minutes to 3
hours. Intervals greater than 3 hours can indicate a problem with fetal
position or uterine function and warrant veterinary attention. Persistent,
unproductive labor of more than 1 hour also requires veterinary attention
(Johnston and Romagnoli, 1991; Jones and Joshua, 1988~.
NEONATAL CARE
Newborn pups, like all neonatal mammals, have poorly developed tem-
perature-control mechanisms; therefore, it is necessary to keep the tempera-
ture in the whelping box higher than room temperature. Temperatures of
29.4-32.2°C (85-90°F) have been suggested for the first 7 days of life,
26.7°C (80°F) for days 8-28, 21.1-23.9°C (70-75°F) for days 29-35, and
23.9°C (70°F) thereafter (Poffenbarger et al., 19901. That can be done by
raising the temperature of the room and placing insulation between the
whelping box and the cage or floor or by using heating devices, such as heat
lamps or built-in heating elements. However, caution is necessary in using
such heating devices; because pups younger than 7 days old have very slow
withdrawal reflexes (Breazile, 1978), they can be overheated or severely
burned by these devices. Circulating-water heating pads or commercial pig
warmers are useful, because they maintain heat at a safe level.
Whelping boxes should be examined two or more times a day for evi-
dence of maternal neglect or cannibalism and for problems with the pups.
A normal pup is plump and round, its head is mobile, and it exhibits a
rooting reflex. Breathing is regular and unlabored, and the coat is shiny and
free of debris. Abdominal enlargement after nursing is normal, but abdomi-
nal enlargement accompanied by restlessness, weakness, and either exces
sive vocalization or complete silence can indicate illness or aerophagia.
Failure to gain weight is often the first sign of illness in a newborn animal
(Greco and Watters, 19901. Andersen (1970) reported expected weight
gains for beagle pups.
Dead pups should be removed from the box. Andersen (1970) and
Lawler (1989) have reviewed causes of neonatal deaths and have reported
an average rate of death of about 20 percent. Necropsy examination is
suggested for all pups that die or are euthanatized with severe illness. Such
examinations are necessary to distinguish between congenital defects, which
affect only the pups in which they occur; infectious diseases, whose spread
OCR for page 41
MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING COLONIES
4
l
might be prevented; and problems with the dam (e.g., insufficient milk) or
the environment (e.g., room temperature too low), which can be corrected.
REPRODUCTIVE PROBLEMS
False Estrus and Anestrus
Recurrent frequent false estrus (estrus without ovulation) has been re-
ported (Shille et al., 1984~. In false estrus, estrus appears normal, and
bitches will mate but fail to conceive. False estrus can be confirmed by
demonstrating with a progesterone ELISA kit that the serum or plasma
progesterone concentration has not risen above 1 ng/ml, as would be ex-
pected for 50 days or more after ovulation if estrus were normal. Bitches
that often have false estrus or have false estrus followed in a few weeks by
normal estrus cause problems in maintaining breeding colonies. Except in
special circumstances, such as reproducing a disease model, it is preferable
to cull these animals. Culling based on small litter size, problems with
whelping or maternal behavior, chronic infertility, or persistent anestrus is
also appropriate. Methods for assessment and treatment for potential causes
of infertility in females have been extensively reviewed (Feldman and Nelson,
1987; Johnston and Romagnoli, 1991; Shille, 1986~. Persistent anestrus can
be distinguished from unobserved cycles only through extremely careful
examinations for signs of proestrus or progesterone assays every 6 weeks.
Estradiol assays are not particularly informative, and assays of canine go-
nadotropin to diagnose primary gonadal failure are not readily available.
Attempts to induce estrus in anestrus bitches have had variable success
(Bouchard et al., l991b; Concannon, 1992, Concannon et al., 1989~.
Delayed Parturition
Whelping should not be considered overdue until 67 days after the last
mating or possibly 70 or more days after the first of several matings. Ce-
sarean section should not be contemplated earlier unless there are obvious
signs of distress in the bitch. Johnson (1986) and Jones and Joshua (1988)
have reviewed veterinary management of dystocia.
Pseudopregnancy
Bitches that are not bred or that are bred but fail to become pregnant
frequently exhibit pseudopregnancy because of the progesterone secretion
that always follows ovulation. Signs of pseudopregnancy include extensive
mammary development, lactation, and maternal behavior. Pseudopregnancy
is rare in beagles but more common in other breeds. It is self-limiting and
usually does not require intervention (Feldman and Nelson, 1987~.
OCR for page 42
42
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
SPECIAL NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Bitches
During pregnancy and lactation, bitches should be fed a diet approved
by the Association of American Feed Control Officials for all life stages or
a diet specially formulated for gestation and lactation (see "Selecting Opti-
mal Rations" in Chapter 3~. When a quality diet is fed, supplementation
with vitamins and minerals is neither necessary nor desirable.
During the first two-thirds of pregnancy, the amount fed should be the
same as that fed before pregnancy. During the last trimester, food intake
should be gradually increased so that at parturition it is 150 percent of the
daily maintenance requirement. Bitches should not be permitted to become
obese during gestation, because this condition can increase the risk of dystocia
and postparturient metabolic disorders (Johnston, 1986~. Bitches that are
underfed during gestation tend to have a higher incidence of stillbirths than
bitches that are fed appropriate amounts, and their pups often weigh less at
birth (Holme, 1982~.
Lactation represents the greatest nutrient challenge that bitches experi-
ence during their lifetimes. For the first 3 weeks after parturition, nutrient
requirements increase rapidly, leveling off at 200-250 percent of daily mainten-
ance requirements, or even more, depending on the number of nursing pups
(NRC, 1985~. The nutritional demands of lactation are met best through
free access to both food and water. At the time of weaning, food is gener-
ally withheld for 24 hours to decrease milk production. Food intake for the
first day after weaning should be one-fourth of the amount required for
maintenance and then gradually increased to the maintenance requirement
by day 4. Ideally, lactating bitches should be within 15 percent of their
prebreeding body weight at the time of weaning (AAFCO, 1993~.
Pups
Pups should be maintained exclusively on their dams' milk until they
are 3 weeks old. They can then begin to eat small amounts of a moistened
gestation-lactation diet or a growth diet. Most pups can be weaned com-
pletely onto this type of diet by the age of 6-8 weeks. For the development
of normal social behavior, it is desirable that they not be completely weaned
before they are 6 weeks old. Pups that cannot be nursed by their dam or a
foster dam before they are 5 weeks old should be fed one of the commer-
cially available, complete milk replacers. Pups can be fed with bottles and
nipples or stomach tubes. Bottles and nipples should be thoroughly cleaned
after each use. If a stomach tube is used, its proper placement can be
OCR for page 43
MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING COLONIES
43
ensured by inserting it to a distance equal to the premeasured distance from
the mouth to the last rib. A small amount of sterile saline solution should
be introduced through the tube before milk replacer is injected. After each
meal, orphaned pups should be massaged in the anal-genital region with a
warm, wet cotton ball to stimulate urination and defecation. Most orphans
can be completely weaned onto solid food by 5 weeks of age.
Young pups most readily eat canned or moistened dry food; older pups
can be fed dry, semi-moist, or canned food. Pups can be fed on either a
free-choice or meal-feeding program. If a meal-feeding program is used,
they should be fed at least four times a day until they are 3 months old,
three times a day until they reach two-thirds of their adult weight, and two
times a day thereafter. After the age of 3 months, free-choice programs can
lead to obesity in small breeds and faster than optimal growth in large
breeds. Excessively rapid growth in breeds whose weight at maturity is
more than 30 lb has been associated with an increase in the incidence of
several metabolic bone diseases (Hedhammer, 1981; Hedhammer et al., 1974;
Kealy et al., 1992~. Pups should be fed so that they grow at near optimal
rates; growth-curve data are often available from pet-food manufacturers.
When an appropriate growth ration is fed, no supplementation is necessary.
If a product is not capable of supporting an optimal growth rate, it is gener-
ally safer, less expensive, and more convenient to switch to a better-quality
growth diet. As a general rule, pups gain approximately 1-2 g/day per
pound of anticipated adult body weight (Lewis et al., 1987~. An inappropri-
ate growth rate usually reflects a problem with the ration being fed or with
the pups' access to it.
VACCINATION AND DEWORMING
Annual vaccinations and deworming of brood bitches should be sched-
uled for anestrus or weaning periods, not when bitches are in proestrus or
are pregnant.
Pups that have nursed on colostrum during the first 12 hours after birth
have received passive immunity to viruses against which the dam was im-
munized. If pups cannot nurse on colostrum, 16 ml of pooled serum admin-
istered subcutaneously has been shown to be a successful alternative (Bouchard
et al., 1992~. Maternally acquired immunity declines over time, and the rate
of decline, although variable, depends on the level of the dam's immunity at
parturition and the amount of colostrum ingested by each pup. About 30-50
percent of pups will be susceptible to disease and capable of being effec-
tively vaccinated by the age of 6-7 weeks. Most pups (more than 95 per-
cent) can be effectively vaccinated by the age of 16 weeks. General prin-
ciples of immunity in newborn animals and of immunoprophylaxis are reviewed
elsewhere (Carmichael, 1983; Tizard, 1977a,b). Diseases to which pups are
OCR for page 44
44
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
susceptible and vaccination schedules are discussed in Chapter 5, Veteri-
nary Care.
Roundworms (Toxocara cants) and hookworms (Ancylostoma caninum
and A. braziliense) are endoparasites that commonly infect young pups.
Roundworms are typically transmitted from bitches to pups in utero, and
pups begin to shed eggs in their feces 3 weeks after birth. Pups infected
with hookworm larvae in their dams' milk typically begin to pass eggs in
their feces 2 weeks after birth. It is important that pups receive treatment
early in life if infection with roundworms or hookworms is suspected. To
prevent peracute hookworm disease in unweaned pups of bitches harboring
large numbers of somatic larvae, it might be necessary to treat the pups
before hookworm eggs are detectable in fecal examinations. Canine en-
doparasites are reviewed in Chapter 5 and discussed fully elsewhere (Georgi
and Georgi, 1992~.
SOCIALIZATION OF PUPS
There is ample evidence of the importance of adequate socialization for
the normal behavioral development of dogs (Clarke et al., 1951; Fox, 1968;
Freedman et al., 1961; Houpt, 1991; Scott and Fuller, 1965~. The term
socialization is somewhat confusing because it has been used to describe
events, processes, and procedures. In the narrowest sense, socialization is
the development of the primary social attachments that form between a pup,
its dam, and its littermates during a critical or sensitive period in its behav-
ioral development (Scott, 1968~. The process is not peculiar to dogs but
occurs in many species of social mammals (see, for example, Cairns, 1966;
Harlow and Harlow, 1969~. In a broader sense, socialization is the process
by which pups form attachments to other dogs, people, and environments.
Attachment formation might require nothing more than sufficient exposure
to or experience with other dogs, people, and elements of the environment,
which results in familiarity with a variety of stimuli (Cairns, 1966; Scott,
1963~. Breeds and individual pups differ in ease of socialization (Scott,
1970~. In any case, adequate socialization allows a pup to develop normal
social relationships with other dogs and to adapt to pair or group housing,
to adjust more easily to unfamiliar stimuli and environmental changes, and
to accept handling with little or no fear and distress (Scott, 1980~.
Sensitive Period for Socialization
There is a sensitive period for socialization during which attachments
form most readily and rapidly (Scott and Fuller, 1965~. The beginning of
the period is marked by the startle response to sound at the age of approxi-
mately 3 weeks. Also at 3 weeks, a pup begins to display distress vocaliza
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MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING COLONIES
45
lions when separated from its dam. Distress vocalizations are distinct from
those made in response to fear (Davis et al., 1977), hunger (Compton and
Scott, 1971; Scott and Bronson, 1964), or physical discomfort (Gurski et
al., 1980~. Separation distress is greater in an unfamiliar pen (Elliot and
Scott, 1961~. To minimize separation distress, pups should remain with
their dams for at least their first 6 weeks.
Ease of attachment formation varies between breeds and individuals but
generally peaks between the age of 6-8 weeks (Scott and Bronson, 1964~.
Although socialization probably occurs at a low rate throughout life, the
end of the sensitive period is marked by the pup's increasing fear of the
unfamiliar at the age of 12-14 weeks (Scott, 1962~.
Consequences of Inadequate Socialization
Pups that are inadequately socialized during the sensitive period exhibit
abnormal behaviors, called kennel-dog or isolation syndromes, that are char-
acterized by one or more of the following behaviors: generalized fearful-
ness, fear-motivated aggression, timidity, immobility, or hyperactivity (Scott
et al., 19674. Dogs that, as a result of inadequate socialization, become
highly distressed when subjected to common laboratory Procedures (e.~.
~ , %, , . ~ By,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . ~ ~ en
handling, walking on a leash, restraint, venipuncture, moves to different
enclosures, and contact with other dogs) probably do not make good re-
search subjects and might be in a compromised state of well-being. It has
been reported that physiologic measurements on such dogs can fall outside
normal limits (Vanderlip et al., 1 985b).
Socialization Programs
Providing contact and handling only during routine husbandry proce-
dures might not be sufficient to produce behaviorally normal, cooperative
research animals (Vanderlip et al., 1985a,b). Specific programs that ad-
dress each aspect of socialization to dogs, to people, and to the environ-
ment should be implemented. Programs that can be used as examples for
providing adequate socialization have been reported (Vanderlip et al., 1985a,b;
Wolfle, 1990~.
The following are examples of elements that might be included in so-
cialization programs: positive contacts with more than one person, opportu-
nities to follow handlers, introduction to some type of restraint (e.g., a
collar and leash), contacts with conspecifics other than littermates, and op-
portunities to explore outside the kennel. Exploration might include expo-
sure to floors of different textures, to a room with different lighting, to
stairs, and to such equipment as exam tables, clippers, and scales. Expo-
sures to those elements should be gradual and paired with positive reinforc
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46
DOGS: LABORATORY ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
ers, such as food, petting, or verbal praise. Negative reinforcement and
physical punishment can elicit aggressive or fearful behaviors and will make
pups more difficult to handle. It is not necessary, or practical, to introduce
pups to every type of environment, person, or animal to which they will
later be exposed in order to provide adequate socialization. Evidence sug-
gests that experience in coping successfully with change facilitates later
success (Scott, 1980~. Thus, the adequacy of any socialization program can
be determined by the ability of pups to adapt successfully to environmental
changes with minimal behavioral and physiologic disruption.
RECORD KEEPING
Records on colony reproduction are essential. Individual records should
contain the following minimal information on each bitch:
.
· start date of each proestrus;
dates of mating and stud dog's identification number;
· date on which bitch's diet should be increased (day 42 of gestation),
date to move bitch to whelping facility (day 50), and range of expected
whelping dates;
· actual whelping date, whelping complications, number and sex of
live pups, number of stillbirths, and any obvious abnormalities in the pups;
· date to start weaning, bitch's distemper antibody titer (if known),
and dates to deworm and vaccinate litter; and
.
daters) and details of disposition of litter.
In addition, missed cycles, abortions, or any abnormal maternal behavior
should be recorded.
To facilitate review of the reproduction records of an entire colony, it is
helpful to have a separate computerized or manual-entry spreadsheet that
displays every reproductive cycle of each bitch in the colony. The spread-
sheet is most useful if it lists the following information, organized chrono-
logically by date of proestrus:
.
identification number of each bitch whose proestrus was first ob-
served on that date;
· for each bitch bred, identification number of stud dog, first and last
dates of mating, total number of matings, and calculated or expected dates
for medical examinations, moving to whelping facility, and whelping; and
· expected date of next cycle.
The spreadsheet should be updated periodically to include for each bitch the
actual whelping date; the length of gestation; litter information, as described
OCR for page 47
MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING COLONIES
47
above; the actual date of the next cycle; and the calculated interestrus inter-
val. A computerized list can be sorted to review the breeding records of
individual bitches and males over several years. Such a list also allows
examination for trends in low fertility, long or short gestation lengths as
indicators of poorly timed inseminations, number of matings per cycle, pro-
jected periods during which several bitches will be in heat at the same time
or no bitches will be in heat, and other matters that could reflect husbandry,
management, or staff problems that need correction.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
laboratory animal
