Storms from the Sun: The Emerging Science of Space Weather (2002)

A

Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM) experiment, 165

Acuña, Mario, 178

Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) research satellite, 105, 172, 174-175, 180, 182, 184, 189, 216

Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics, 185-186

Aerospace Corporation, 119

Air Line Pilots Association, 150

Air traffic control, 26

Airlines, commercial flights, 4, 25-26, 86, 91, 110, 113, 149-151, 192-193, 194-195

Alamo, 38

Alfvén, Hannes, 67-68

Allen, Joe, 23, 27, 122-123, 134

American Civil War, 37

American Science and Engineering, 72

American Telephone and Telegraph, 110

Amos (Hebrew prophet), 33-34

Ampère, André-Marie, 63

Anasazi culture, 164

Anaxagoras, 45

Anik E1 and E2 satellites, 23, 121-123, 124, 155

Antarctic Circle, 20

Antarctica, 16-19, 44, 138

Antiochos, Spiro, 87

Apollo missions, 137, 139, 140-141, 143-144

Arctic Circle, 20, 138

Aristotle, 37, 40, 45, 46

Armagh Observatory, 169

Astronauts, radiation hazards, 5-6, 20, 86, 88, 91, 137, 139, 140-149, 185

AT&T, 121, 131-133, 138, 179

Auroral electrojet, 16, 96, 101

Auroras

Aurora borealis (northern lights), ix, 4, 16, 17, 40, 41-42, 56-57, 58, 96-97, 130, 159, 205, 206, 212, 213

Aurora australis (southern lights), ix, 16-19, 40, 57, 96

background, 18

ballad, 61

cause and formation process, 17-18, 42-44, 49, 55, 56, 83, 85, 88, 89

and communications disruptions, 57-59, 91

and compass deviations, 62, 212

conjugates, 44

coronas, 109

displays, ix, 18-19, 40-41, 56, 96, 109, 138

experimental, 43, 64-65

and false missile launch indicators, 130

frequency of displays, 44, 159, 161

Great Auroras, 44-45, 55-57, 96-97, 107-108, 109, 157

historical accounts of, 40-41, 42, 56-57

imaging, 184, 186, 187

locations of sightings, 4, 16-17, 44-45, 56-57, 65, 96-97, 138, 140, 157, 180, 212

monitoring, 177, 184, 186

myths and legends, 40, 41-42

radiation hazards, 111, 146, 150

sunspots and, 161, 162

and weather prediction, 42

web sites, 205, 206

B

Babcock, Horace, 155-156

Badhwar, Gautam, 5-7, 140, 145, 147, 215

Baker, Dan, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 28, 90, 123, 178, 181

Baker, James, 24

Banks, Joseph, 44

Barish, Robert, 150, 151

Barlow, W. H., 57-58

Barnes, Paul, 103

Battle of Hastings, 38

BBC World Service, 113

Biermann, Ludwig, 68

Birkeland, Kristian, 64-65, 66, 67-68, 212, 213

Bogdan, Tom, 85

Bonner Ball neuron detector, 6

Boteler, David, 101, 105, 214

Brekke, Pål, 180, 188, 197

British Antarctic Survey, 17, 177-178

Brooks, John, 7, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111

Butler, John, 169, 170

C

Canadian Broadcast Company, 121

Canadian Geological Survey, 101

Canadian Space Agency, 177

Carrington, Richard, 51-54, 55, 61, 72, 79, 85, 95, 111, 155, 171, 180

Cassini, Giovanni, 161

Catholic Church, 45, 46

CBS News, 11, 25

Celsius, Anders, 43, 62, 63, 212

Central Florida Astronomical Society, 96-97

Chaos theory, 183

Chapman, Sydney, 66-67, 68, 71

Cheyenne Mountain Operations

Center, 97

Chinese Television Network, 25

Christofilos, Nicholas, 72-73

Chromosphere, 35

Chronometer, 212

Civilization, celestial events and, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39

Clarke, Arthur C., 75, 117, 193

Climate change

C¹⁴ in tree rings, 162-164

cosmic rays and, 163, 167, 168

global warming/greenhouse effect, 166, 170, 197

interplanetary magnetic field and, 167-168

Little Ice Age, 163, 166, 167

solar cycles and, 85, 91, 153, 161-164, 197

solar radiative output and, 164-167

solar-stratospheric relationship, 165-166, 168-169

ultraviolet radiation and, 165-166

Cluster II, 89, 177, 216

CNN Airport Network, 25

Cold War, 70, 72-73, 130

Columbus, Christopher, 31-32

Comets, 37-40, 49, 161

Communications disruptions. See also Radio waves;

Satellites

airline industry, 110, 113, 193

backup systems, 28

broadcast radio and television, 4, 8, 11-12, 13, 18-19, 108, 110, 113-114, 118, 121, 131-133

CMEs and, 91

LORAN system, 113

magnetic storms and, 98-99, 112-113, 131-133

pager network failure, 11-12, 22-25

solar flares and, 86

sunspots and, 85

telegraph, 54, 57-59

telephone and teletype, 110, 118, 121, 138, 193

Compasses, 61-62, 97, 212

Concorde, 149

Cook, James, 44

Coronagraphs, 35-36, 71-72, 81

Coronal mass ejections (CMEs), 4, 5

and auroras, 44-45

cause and formation process, 80, 86-87, 142, 187

composition, 90, 127

coordinated studies of, 178-179, 196

defined, 13

discovery, 54, 138

Earth impacts, 13, 14-15, 16, 17-18, 19, 21, 87-89, 91, 95, 131, 138, 179, 182-183, 185, 187, 193, 196

force of, 13, 87-89, 91, 185

geoeffectiveness, 88-89

halo, 95, 184

prediction, 188

rate of occurrence, 87, 94

size of cloud, 14, 86-87, 179

solar cycle and, 155, 157

and solar wind, 8, 14, 36, 75, 87

time-lapse photos, 71-72

Cosmic rays, x, 69, 111, 127, 142, 148, 149, 150, 163, 167, 168

CS-3B communications satellite, 98

Cyanogen, 38-39

D

Danilov, Valentin, 215

Danish Meteorological Institute, 169

Danish Space Research Institute, 167

Darwin, Charles, 63

de Coulomb, Charles Augustin, 63

De Maculis in Sole Observatis, 46

DeForest, Craig, 80

Descartes, René, 43

Dessler, Alex, 66

Dielectric charging hypothesis, 22-24, 121-124

Dielectric materials, 123-124

DOSMAP dosimetric mapping experiment, 5

Dressler, Alex, 213

Dynamics Explorers, 176

E

Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) experiment, 165

Earthquakes

celestial events and, 35-36, 179

monitoring network outage, 132

Eclipses, 31-36, 49, 81, 162, 205, 206

Economic impacts, 98-99, 100, 103-104, 118-119, 122, 128, 132, 193

Eddy, Jack, 160, 161, 162, 163-164, 166

Electric power disruptions and hazards

causes of, 91, 98, 101-102, 104, 105, 109, 111, 175

design-basis events, 105

dielectric charging hypothesis, 22-24

direct current vs. alternating current, 101-102

economic impacts, 98-99, 100, 103-104

electromagnetic pulse and, 73

forecasting, 104-105, 175, 185

geology and, 102

GICs and, 98, 102, 104, 105, 109, 111, 175

Hydro-Quebec blackout, 99-101

hypothetical worst-case event, 103-104

mitigation measures, 4, 104-105, 193

North American system vulnerability, 101-102, 109-110, 214

nuclear power plants, 98-99, 175, 194

power-sharing structure and, 104

on satellites, 22-24

for telegraph operators, 59-60, 214

transformer failure cycle, 102, 138, 140

vulnerability to, 8, 159, 194

Electrical energy from solar storms, 16, 85, 91

Electromagnetic furnace, 212

Electromagnetic pulse, 73

Electromagnetic waves, x, 63, 79

Electromagnetism, 62-63, 80, 101, 181-182

Eponym Canon, 34

Equator-S satellite, 22

Escouber, Philippe, 89

Eskimos, 42

European Space Agency, 79, 89, 174, 177, 180, 195, 205

European Union, 150

Explorer satellites, 69, 70, 71, 141, 176, 214

Extravehicular activity (EVA), 5, 145- 146, 148

Eyde, Sam, 212

Ezekiel (prophet), 41

F

Fabricius, Johannes, 46

Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE), 126

Faraday, Michael, 63, 101

Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer (FAST), 180, 216

Federal Aviation Administration, 26, 114, 150

Federal Communications Commission, 27-28

Ferraro, Vincent, 67, 68, 71

Flamsteed, John, 161

Fox Indians of Wisconsin, 42

Franklin, Benjamin, 43

Free University of Berlin, 168

Friis-Christensen, Eigil, 169

G

Galaxy satellites, 12, 20, 22-26, 27, 120, 121

Galilei, Galileo, 45, 46, 47, 153, 161, 171

Galileo Project, 206

Gamma radiation, 77, 86, 144

Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 63

Geiger counters, 69-70

Genesis mission, 181

Geomagnetically induced currents (GICs), 98, 102, 104, 105, 109, 111, 175

Geomagnetism research, 61-67

Geophysics, 62, 63, 67

Geospace, 12

Geotail mission, 177, 216

Gilbert, William, 61-62, 64

Global Positioning System, 8, 98, 114, 125, 128-129, 193

GMS satellites, 22

Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 166

Goddard Space Flight Center, 12, 178, 184

Gold, Thomas, 67

Golightly, Mike, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148

Goodrich, Charles, 182-183

Graham, George, 62, 63, 212

Great Comet of 1861, 37

Gringauz, Konstantin, 71

Gurman, Joe, 190

H

Hairy stars, 37

Hale-Bopp comet, 39, 179

Hale, George Ellery, 63-64

Halley’s comet, 37-39, 161

Harriot, Thomas, 46

Harrison, John, 212

Harvard Radio Astronomy Station, 108

Hathaway, David, 157, 158

Heaven’s Gate cult, 39

Heckman, Gary, 174-175

Helios, 176

Helms, Susan, 4

Henry, Joseph, 56, 63

Herschel, William, 160

Hey, James Stanley, 115

High-Altitude Observatory (HAO), 71-72, 85, 108, 162, 205

High-energy particles. See also Radiation hazards

detection, 69-70

dielectric charging hypothesis, 22-24, 121-123

electron-beam theory, 66

killer electrons, 12, 23-24, 90, 123, 197

penetration of spacecraft, 86

solar proton events, 15, 86, 94, 96, 124-126, 127, 138, 140-149, 159, 184-186

sources, 15, 85, 86-90

in Van Allen radiation belts, 19, 89-90, 91

High-Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (HESSI), 181

Hildner, Ernie, 168, 173, 175

Hiortier, Olof, 62, 212

Historical accounts

of auroras, 40-41, 42, 162, 163

of comets, 37-39, 161

of eclipses, 33, 34, 162

of sunspots, 45-46, 161-162, 163

HMS Endeavour, 44

Hodgson, Richard, 52-53

Hoffman, Robert, 179

Hoffmeister, Cuno, 68

Hubble Space Telescope, 125-126, 128

Hudson, Donald, 150, 151

Hughes Space and Communications, 24, 26, 121

Hyakutake comet, 39

I

Igneous rock geologies, 102

Imager for Magnetopause to Aurora Global Exploration (IMAGE), 180, 184

Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), 177

Intelsat-K satellite, 123

International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), x, 69, 108, 111, 214

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics program, 19, 176-181, 184, 187, 216

International Space Station Alpha, 1, 4, 5, 6, 20, 145-148, 185, 195

International Sun-Earth Explorers, 176

Internet, 187, 193-194

Interplanetary Monitoring Platforms, 176, 216

Inuit, 41-42

Ion traps, 71

Ionosphere, x, 16, 18-19, 20, 68, 86, 89, 96, 98, 142

Ionospheric scintillation, 112-114, 129, 192

Iridium satellites, 22

J

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 181

John (evangelist), 34

John of Worcester, 45

Johns Hopkins University, 126, 181

Johnson Space Center, 5, 140, 143, 145, 173

Joselyn, JoAnn, 93-94, 159, 196

K

Kappenman, John, 101, 104-105

Kelvin, William Thomson (Lord), 64

Kennard, William, 27-28

Kepler, Johann, 39

Kew Observatory, 54

Khrushchev, Nikita, 71

Killer electrons, 12, 23-24, 90, 123, 197

Kirkwood, Daniel, 56-57

Kongespeilet, 42

Korolev, Sergei, 70, 71

Kunstadter, Christopher, 118, 119

L

Labitzke, Karin, 168

Lanzerotti, Louis, 133

Large-Angle Spectrometric Coronagraph, 15-16, 125

Larson, Michelle Beauvais, 78

Lassen, Knud, 169

Little Ice Age, 163, 166, 167

Living with a Star program, 195-196

Lockheed Martin, 132, 146

Lockwood, Mike, 167-168

Lodestone, 61

Long-Range Navigation (LORAN) system, 113

Loomis, Elias, 56, 58, 61, 63, 72, 111, 180, 212

Loral Space & Communications, 132

Los Alamos National Laboratory, 20-21, 90, 177

Louis I, 35

Lucent Technologies, 133

Ludwig, George, 69

Lunar base, 148, 192

Lunik spacecraft, 71

Lyot, Bernard-Ferdinand, 35-36

M

MacQueen, Bob, 71-72

Magnetic field lines, 14, 19, 43-44, 65, 81, 87, 89

Magnetic fields

Earth’s, see Geomagnetism;

Magnetosphere

interaction, 87, 89, 146

interplanetary, 83, 167-168

in solar wind, 68-69, 82, 83

Sun’s, 3, 82, 84, 87, 89, 153, 154-155, 156, 168

Magnetic observatories, 51, 52, 63

Magnetic reconnection, 87, 89, 183, 187

Magnetic storms, xi.

See also Communications disruptions;

Satellites

1847, 57-58

1859, 54-57, 58-60, 111, 212

1909, 44

1958, 7, 107-112

1989, 44, 95-96, 97-101, 102, 105, 113, 122, 127, 145, 149, 213

1991, 127

1997, 131-133

1998, 12-16, 18-19, 21, 22, 24, 28, 118-119

2000, 81, 118-119, 147, 157, 175, 184-186

2001, 1, 2-5

alerts, 97, 120

cause and formation process, 89

CMEs and, 88-89

equatorial, 66, 67

first direct observation, 62

hypothetical worst-case, 103-104

solar cycle and, 138, 154, 155

solar flares and, 85

solar wind and, 83, 174-175

sunspots and, 48, 55-56, 59-60, 64, 83-84, 85

MagnetoHydroDynamics equations, 182

Magnetosphere, Earth

and auroras, 17-18, 43-44

“cavity,” 13, 16, 67, 71, 83

CMEs and, 88-89, 179, 182-183, 185

compression, 16, 96, 97, 131, 146, 179, 185

electrical energy, 83

killer electrons in, 24

MHS simulations, 182-184, 196

monitoring, 89, 177

nuclear weapons tests in, 72-73

plasma particle detection in, 71

plasma sheet, 88

radiation hazards in, 145, 148

solar cycle and, 156

solar flares and disruption of, 54-55, 67, 138

solar wind penetration, 83, 86

South Atlantic Anomaly, 20, 125- 126, 142

Van Allen radiation belts and, 19-20, 88, 179

Web sites, 203-204

Maran, Steve, 213

Marecs-A navigation satellite, 127

Mariner II, 71

Mars exploration, 148, 149, 192

Mars Odyssey spacecraft, 4, 215

Mars Radiation Environment Experiment, 215

Marshall Space Flight Center, 157

Mason, Helen, 82

Maunder, E. W., 64, 71, 72, 160-161, 162-163

Max Planck Institute, 177

Maxwell, James Clerk, 63, 64, 182

McIlwain, Carl, 69-70

Medicine Wheels, 33

Medieval Climatic Optimum, 164

Mercury (planet), 45, 47, 48

Michels, Don, 178-179

Microwaves, 85

Mid-Atlantic Area Council power pools, 100

Milton, John, 34-35

Minnesota Power and Electric, 102

Mir space station, 7, 127-128, 144, 145, 185

Montana State University, 78

Moos, Warren, 126

Motorola, 22

Muir, John, 93

Myths and legends

of auroras, 40, 41-42

of comets, 37-38, 49

of eclipses, 32, 34-35, 49

N

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). See also specific missions and spacecraft

ESA joint missions, 79

flight rules, 147-148

launch/mission delays, 4, 140

monitoring projects, 189

radiation risk study, 146-147

Solar Cycle 23 Project, 156-157

Space Radiation Analysis Group, 5, 143, 148, 173

spacecraft design, 195

web sites, 205

National Center for Atmospheric Research, 168

National Geophysical Data Center, 122

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 24, 94, 98, 119, 120, 122, 124, 127, 137, 147, 148, 156-157, 159, 168, 172, 173, 177, 181, 195, 205

National Public Radio (NPR), 11, 25

National Research Council, 146-147

National Science Foundation, 178, 189, 195

National Security Space Architecture, 129

National Solar Observatory, 205

National Weather Service, 173

Native American Indian tribes, 41-42

Neumann, Peter, 28-29

Newton, Isaac, 63

Nimbus-7 satellite, 165

Nobel Prizes, 66, 68

Norsk Hydro, 212

North American Electric Reliability Council, 103

Northeast Power Coordinating Council, 100

Nuclear fusion, 77

Nuclear weapons tests, 72-73

O

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 103

Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 143

Oersted, Hans Christian, 63

Ogilvie, Keith, 179

Oil prospecting operations, 97

Onsager, Terry, 183, 188

Operation Argus, 72-73

Orbiting Solar Observatory 7, 71

Orr, Eric, 172-173

Ozone layers, 166-167

P

Pager network failure, 11-12, 22-25

Paley, Matthew, 17-19, 21

PanAmSat Corporation, 12, 24, 26-27, 211

Paré, Ambroise, 37

Parker, Eugene, 68-69, 71, 72, 161

Path of totality, 35

Peloponnesian War, 34

Penumbrae, 3, 45

Phantom Torso experiment, 6-7

Phlegon, 34

Physio-Meteorological Observatory (Havana, Cuba), 57

Picard, Jean, 161

Plague of 1665, 37

Planetary Society, 195, 206

Plasma

auroral flows, 177

composition, 49, 67

coronal flows, 82, 86

energy transport, 78, 80

formation, 76

ionospheric, 112-113

particle detectors, 71

pervasiveness, 212

physics, 67-68

properties, 35, 89, 112-113

surface charging of spacecraft, 126-127

in Van Allen radiation belts, 19, 89, 188

Photospheric granules, 3

Plutarch, 37

Poey, Andreas, 57

Poincaré, Henri, 64

Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellites, 21, 22, 177, 184, 186, 216

Pompeii, 37

Pope Callixtus III, 38

Prescott, George B., 58-59

Printy, Tom, 96-97

Prophecies and predictions of celestial events, 31-32, 33-34, 38

Ptolemy, Claudius, 37

Public Service Electric and Gas Co., 98-99

R

Radar, 114-115

Radiation hazards

to airline passengers and crew, 4, 86, 149-151, 194-195, 206

to astronauts, 5-6, 7, 8, 20, 86, 137, 139, 140-149, 185, 192, 197

in auroral zones, 111, 146, 150

cancer risk, 143, 144-145, 146-147, 149, 150, 151

from cosmic rays, 141, 142, 148, 149, 150

detection/detectors, 69-70

dose measures, 215

exposure limits, 141, 143, 146-147, 150-151

genetic mutation, 143, 149

high-energy particles (ionizing), 12, 15, 23-24, 86, 142-143

in ionosphere, 142

lethal dose, 143, 145

long-term, low-level doses, 148-149

in magnetosphere, 145, 148

modeling, 144-145

monitoring, 5, 6-7

nuclear weapons tests and, 73

to pregnant women, 150

radiation sickness, 142-143

to satellites, 119, 124, 125-126, 127-128, 129

shielding and, 20, 22, 23, 28, 119, 126, 129, 130-131, 134-135, 140, 145, 146, 147, 214-215

from solar flares, 86, 127, 137, 139, 140-141, 145, 150

from solar proton events, 86, 124, 127, 139, 140-149

from Van Allen radiation belts, 20- 21, 73, 126, 142, 146

warning of, 142, 148

Radio Free Europe, 113

Radio waves

applications, 112, 187

communications distortions and blackouts, 4, 8, 11-12, 18-19, 85, 108, 110, 113-114, 130, 138, 184, 192-193

discovery, 112

ionospheric scintillation, 112-114

principles of communication, 112

projected interruptions, 129, 192-193

solar emissions, x, 13, 85, 108-109, 114-115, 138, 187

Ramey Solar Observatory, 93

Ray, Ernie, 70

RCA Communications, 110

Reeves, Geoff, 20-22, 23, 24, 90

Reuters news service, 25

Ring current, 16, 68

Roberts, Walter Orr, 108

Rostoker, Gordon, 24

Royal Astronomical Society, 64, 160

Royal Greenwich Observatory, 160

Royal Society of London, 64

Royce, Frederick, 59

Russell, Chris, 22

Russian Space Research Institute, 177

Rust, Dave, 72

Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, 167

Rutja, 41

S

Sabine, Edward, 48, 51, 55, 56, 63

Sacramento Peak Solar Observatory, 108

Saint George, 41

Sandia National Laboratory, 214-215

Saros cycles, 32, 33

Satellites. See also specific satellites and missions

applications, 117

atmospheric drag, 96, 97, 98, 128, 186

backup systems, 27, 121, 135-136, 184

CMEs and, 88, 96

and commerce, 118

communication problems of, 91, 98, 114, 121, 127, 128, 159, 184

communications-related, 8, 11-12, 20, 22, 23-25, 26-27, 98, 117-118, 121-123, 131-133, 157, 179

data recorders, 69, 120

deep dielectric charging, 22-24, 121-124

design and construction shortcomings, 127, 129, 130-131, 194

dielectric materials, 123-124

economic investment, 117

electrostatic discharge, 126-127

environment-related losses, 119-120, 128-133

failure rates, 27-28, 118, 133, 175

forecasting and, 175

in geostationary orbit, 14, 94, 98, 115, 123, 128-129

geosynchronous orbit, 16, 20, 96, 185

GPS, 8, 98, 114, 125, 127, 128-129, 191, 193

hardened/shielded, 20, 22, 23, 28, 119, 126, 129, 130-131, 134- 135, 194, 211

HS 601 model, 26

insurance claims, 118-119, 132

ionospheric scintillation and, 114

killer electrons, 12, 23-24, 90, 123

low-Earth orbit, 128, 129, 196

military, 4, 117, 128-131

miniature, 196

mitigation measures, 22, 119

number in orbit, 28, 117, 118

orbital displacement, 96, 97, 98, 128, 131

outages and failures, 4, 8, 11-12, 20, 22-27, 73, 86, 91, 98, 119, 121-129, 157, 159, 179, 184-186, 193, 206

radiation damage, 119, 126

reporting of anomalies, 133-134

scientific, 22, 117, 125-126, 129, 165, 184-186

single-event upsets, 124-126

solar cycle and threat to, 28, 155

solar flares and, 86, 127

solar panel failures, 127-128, 185-186

Starfish nuclear weapons test and, 73

surface charging, 126-127

tin whiskers problem, 26-27, 120

Van Allen radiation belts and, 20, 22-23, 73, 90, 124, 127, 129, 135

weather-tracking, 14, 26, 94, 98, 123, 127-128, 129, 165

Saturn, 161

Scheiner, Christopher, 46, 161

Schou, Jesper, 79

Schwabe, Heinrich, 47-48, 51, 154

Seneca, 40

Service, Robert W., 61

Shindell, Drew, 166-167

Single-event upsets, 124-126

Siscoe, George, 147-148

Skylab space station, 71, 72, 128, 144

Skynet Satellite Services, 132

Smithsonian Institution, 56

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), 13, 15-16, 79, 125, 172, 174, 177, 180, 184, 188, 189, 190, 216

Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX), 19, 21, 216

Solar cycles

11-year, 79-80, 153, 154, 160, 163, 167, 169

22-year, 154

and auroras, 44, 162

and climate change, 85, 91, 153, 161-167

and CMEs, 155, 157

current cycle 23, 28, 156, 157, 158, 187

discovery, 154

and magnetic storms, 138, 154, 155, 157

Maunder minimum, 160-161, 162-163, 164, 167, 169

maximum, 1, 15, 20, 28, 94, 98, 128, 129, 131, 134, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 167, 187, 216

medieval maximum, 164

minimum, 28, 128, 134, 137, 142, 154, 156, 160, 167

NASA/NOAA project, 156-157, 159, 165

and ozone layers (stratospheric), 166

and particle emissions, 153

and polar shift, 154-155

research satellite, 94, 97

and solar flares, 155, 157, 213, 216

and solar irradiance, 164-166, 168-169

and solar wind, 155, 162, 167

and space weather predictions, 156-157, 159

and spacecraft/astronaut risk, 28, 124, 145-146

Spörer minimum, 164

and stratospheric oscillation, 168-169

and sunspot patterns, 48, 51, 55, 79-80, 153, 154-156, 157-158, 162, 216

and terrestrial weather, 168-170

transformer failure cycle and, 102

ultraviolet radiation, 165-166

Solar dynamo, 79-80

Solar eclipses, 32-36

Solar flares

and auroras, 44-45, 55, 85

cause, 13, 80, 81, 85-86, 137-138

discovery, 51-54, 61, 85

emissions, 13, 85, 94, 138

force, 13, 54-55, 85, 94

and magnetic storms, 55, 64, 85

M-class, 94

radiation hazards, 86, 127, 137, 139, 140-141, 145, 150

rate of occurrence, 85

seahorse, 138-140

size, 53, 94, 111

solar cycle and, 155, 157, 213, 216

and solar wind, 8, 86, 111

and space-based activities, 86

spectroheliographs, 63-64

sunspots and, 85, 94, 142

temperature, 94

“white-light,” 2-3, 4-5, 52-54, 95, 108, 127

X-class, 93, 94, 138-140, 145, 192, 213

X-ray intensity, 3, 54, 138, 213

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) satellite, 94, 97, 165, 176

Solar proton events, 15, 86, 94, 96, 124-126, 127, 138, 140-149, 159, 184-186, 192-193

Solar Proton Modeling Experiment, 141

Solar sail, 195, 196, 206

Solar wind

and auroras, 43-44

CMEs and, 14

comets’ tails and, 39-40, 68

composition, 8, 66, 67, 76, 83, 89-90, 90

cycle, 71, 72

defined, x

density, 66, 83

detectors, 71

magnetic field in, 68-69, 82, 83, 167

magnetosphere penetration, 83, 90

mass, 82-83

monitoring and modeling, 104-105, 172, 174-175, 177, 181, 184, 188, 196

origin, 36, 72, 81, 82

speed, 16, 54, 64, 82, 86, 120, 196

structures, 162

and Van Allen radiation belts, 21

Solar X-ray Imager (SXI), 181

South Atlantic Anomaly, 20, 125-126, 142

Southwest Research Institute, 80

Space Environment Center (SEC), 94, 119, 120, 122, 124, 137, 148, 159, 168, 172, 173, 177, 183, 184, 188, 189, 195, 196, 205

Space lightning, 126-127

Space physics, 63, 129-130

Space shuttle

Atlantic, 145

Endeavor, 5, 6

mission STS-100, 5

radiation hazards, 20, 148

Space telescopes, 81, 13, 15-16, 79

Space tourism, 192, 195

Space weather. See also Magnetic storms;

Space weather forecasting

causes, x, 36, 55, 80, 83-84, 85

engineering responses, xi

first widely observed instance, 54-57, 58-59, 63

hypothetical worst-case event, 103-104

ignorance of, 129-130, 135, 179-180

information deficiencies, 135

insurance claims, 118-119

most significant, 101

practical applications, x

reporting of failures due to, 120, 133-134

and terrestrial weather, 168-169, 181, 214

theoretical basis, 67-68

visible manifestations, ix, 3-4, 16-19, 44-45, 49

vulnerability of society to, x-xi, 4, 7, 8-9, 20, 25-29, 49, 59, 75, 98-101, 159, 191-195

Web sites, 203-205

Space Weather Architecture Study, 129, 134

Space weather forecasting

accuracy, 174-175, 175, 196

alerts, watches, and warnings, 142, 147, 173, 175, 185, 187

for electric power companies, 104-105, 175, 185

engineering interface with, xi

funding, 188-189, 196

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics program and, 19, 176-181

maps, 21-22, 181

MHD simulations and, 181-184

planetary K index, 173

for satellite operators, 175

Solar Cycle 23 Project, 156-157

solar proton events, 142, 159

solar wind monitoring and, 105, 174-175, 182-184

Space Weather Operations Center, 171-172

tools for, 143, 147, 159, 172, 174-175, 176-181, 187-190, 196

vulnerability of equipment, 184-186

Spacecraft design, 127, 129, 130-131, 194, 195-196.

See also Satellites;

individual spacecraft

Special world interval advisory, 108

Spectroheliograph, 63-64

Speich, Dave, 119, 122-123

Spörer, Gustav, 160, 162

Springsteen, Bruce, 171

Sputnik satellites, 69, 70-71, 176

SRI International, 28

Stanford University, 79

Starfish High Altitude Nuclear Test program, 73

Stewart, Balfour, 51, 55-56, 59-60, 63, 72

Stoermer, Carl, 65-66

Stonehenge, 33

Sullivan, Walter, 109, 111-112

Sun

atmosphere, 8, 35-36, 46, 71, 76, 187

changes in, 7-8, 167, 187;

see also Solar cycle

chromosphere, 80, 85

composition, 77, 78

convection zone, 78-79, 80

core, 79

corona, 35-36, 68, 71-72, 80-82, 86, 120, 155, 156, 162, 196

distance to Earth, ix, 77

energy transport in, 78-79, 167

far-side imaging and modeling, 187

fusion process, 77

magnetic fields, 3, 82, 84, 87, 89, 153, 154-155, 156, 168

nonthermal emissions, x, 4, 77, 153

photosphere, 35, 78, 80, 82

radiation zone, 78, 79, 80

radiative output, ix, x, 165-167

radio noise from, 108

rotation rates, 51, 64, 79, 155-156

safe viewing, 2, 52

seasons, see Solar cycle

seismic waves, 85-86, 108

size and age, 76-77, 213

temperatures, ix, 78, 82, 84, 196

toroidal fields, 79-80, 81-82, 156

Sunspots

active region 5395, 93-94, 95

active region 5935, 95, 97

active region 8210, 14-16

active region 9077, 184

active region 9393, 2-3, 4

active region 9415, 3, 4-5

active region 9433, 3-4

active region ABOO, 108

and auroras, 161, 162

cause, 49, 80, 84, 85

and climate change, 85

and CMEs, 142

cycle, 48, 51, 55, 154-156, 169, 216

discovery and early studies, 45-48, 79, 84

emissions, 85

location, 51

and magnetic storms, 48, 55-56, 59-60, 64, 83-84, 85

prolonged minimum, 160-161, 162-163, 164, 167

properties, 83-84

and solar flares, 85, 94, 142

structures, 3, 45

and temperatures on Earth, 169

time-series images, 95

Svensmark, Henrik, 167, 170

Swift-Tuttle comet of 1862, 37

Sydkraft, 98

T

Teal Group, 118

Telesat Canada, 121, 122

Telstar satellites, 121, 131-133, 155, 179

Terra Earth Observing Spacecraft, 126

Terrella, 61, 64-65

Thales, 34

Theophrastus, 45

Thermal radiation, ix, x

Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics mission, 181

Thompson, Barbara, 12-13, 21

Thor, 41

Thucydides, 34

Tiberius, 40-41

Tinsley, Brian, 167

Tito, Dennis, 195

Tousey, Richard, 71

Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE) spacecraft, 81, 174, 180, 184

Treaty of Verdun, 35

Tribble, Alan, 119, 135-136

Triewald, Marten, 43

Tschan, Chris, 129, 130, 131, 134

Twain, Mark, 38

U

Ultraviolet radiation, 83, 165-166

Umbrae, 3, 45

University of California at Los Angeles, 22

University of Chicago, 68, 161

University of Colorado, Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, 21, 90, 123, 178

University of Iowa, 19, 69, 70

University of Maryland, 182

University of Minnesota, 111

University of Texas at Dallas, 167

Upper Atmospheric Research Satellite (UARS), 165, 166

U.S. Air Force, 97, 122, 129, 171-172, 177, 205

U.S. Aviation Underwriters, 118

U.S. Coast Guard LORAN system, 113

U.S. Department of Defense, 114, 128-131

U.S. Geostationary Operational Environment Satellites (GOES), 14, 94, 98, 123, 127, 181, 184

U.S. National Bureau of Standards, x

U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, 71, 87, 178-179

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 175

Usachev, Yury, 4

V

Van Allen, James, 19, 20, 69-70, 71, 214

Van Allen radiation belts

composition, 19

discovery, 19, 69-70

dose modeling, 135, 196

intensity changes, 20-21, 89-90

new belts, 21, 73

nuclear weapons tests and, 72-73

particle accumulation and acceleration in, 19, 89-90, 91, 124-126, 131, 138, 179, 196, 197

radiation hazards from, 20-21, 69-70, 73, 89, 127, 135, 142, 146

solar wind and, 21, 188

and spacecraft, 20, 22-23, 91, 127

structure, 19-20, 70, 90

weather maps of, 21-22

Van Dyke, James, 103

van Loon, Harry, 168, 170

Venus, 45, 71

Verne, Jules, 193

Vernov, Sergei, 70-71

Vesuvius eruption, 37

Vikings, 42

Voice of America, 113

Volcanoes, and auroras, 43

von Humboldt, Alexander, 48, 51, 62, 63

Voss, James, 4

Voyager 2 spacecraft, 192

Vulcan, 45, 47, 48

W

Watson-Watt, Robert, 114

Weapon systems control, 114

Weber, Wilhelm, 63

Weyland, Mark, 146

William the Conqueror, 38

Wind spacecraft, 16, 177, 182, 216

Winkler, John, 111

Withbroe, George, 187

Wood, O.S., 58

World Data Center on Solar Activity, 108

World War II, 114-115

World Warning Agency, 109

X

X-ray telescope, 72, 181

X rays

auroras and, 111

and communications equipment, 91

dose to humans, 5-6, 144

intensity of solar flares, 3, 54, 85, 86, 138

speed, 184

sunspot emissions, 85

Y

Yale University, 56

Yohkoh satellite, 174, 184, 204

Z

Zurich Observatory, 46-47