NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the group responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M.White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the service of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I.Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with the general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M.White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
The work that provided the basis for this volume was supported by the National Research Council Fund.
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Copyright 1992 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
COMMISSION ON BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES AND EDUCATION
ROBERT McC.ADAMS (Chair),
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
ANN L.BROWN,*
School of Education, University of California, Berkeley
PHILIP E.CONVERSE,
Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, Calif.
KAREN DAVIS,
The Commonwealth Fund, New York, N.Y.
RICHARD ELMORE,
Graduate School of Education, Harvard University
ROBERT M.HAUSER,
Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin
PATRICIA KING,*
Georgetown University Law Center
ALVIN M.LIBERMAN,
Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, Conn.
CHARLES MANSKI,
Department of Economics, University of Wisconsin
DANIEL MCFADDEN,
Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley
DAVID MECHANIC,
Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research, Rutgers University
JANE MENKEN,
Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania
WILLIAM A.MORRILL,
Mathtech, Inc., Princeton, N.J.
W.RICHARD SCOTT,
Department of Sociology, Stanford University
CHRISTOPHER SIMS,
Department of Economics, Yale University
JEROME E.SINGER,
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Md.
JOHN A.SWETS,
BBN Laboratories, Inc., Cambridge, Mass.
RICHARD F.THOMPSON,
Neuroscience Program, University of Southern California
WILLIAM J.WILSON,
Department of Sociology, University of Chicago
DAVID A.WISE,
National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass.
WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
Participants from the Russian Federation
VLADIMIR AVERCHEV, Embassy of the Russian Federation
ALEXANDRA BELYAEVA, Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences
VALERY GUBIN, Faculty of Philosophy, Russian State University of the Humanities
VALERY MESKOFF, Committee for Higher Education, Ministry of Science, Higher Education, and Technology of the Russian Federation
VLADIMIR PECHATNOV, Embassy of the Russian Federation
VLADLEN S.VERESHCHETIN, Institute of State and Law, Russian Academy of Sciences
Participants from the United States
BARBARA ANDERSON, Population Studies Center, University of Michigan
DONNA BAHRY, Department of Political Science, University of California, Davis
HARLEY BALZER, Russian Area Studies Program, Georgetown University
MARK BEISSINGER, Department of Political Science, University of Wisconsin
MICHAEL BRAINERD, Citizen Exchange Council, New York, N.Y.
JANE BURBANK, Center for Russian and East European Studies, University of Michigan
MARIANNA TAX CHOLDIN, Russian and East European Studies Center, University of Illinois
PHILIP CONVERSE, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, Calif.
JOHN CORNMAN, American Anthropological Association, Washington, D.C.
NANCY CUNNIFF, Russell Sage Foundation, New York City
MURRAY FESHBACH, Department of Demography, Georgetown University
WESLEY FISHER, International Research and Exchanges Board, Washington, D.C.
SAMUEL R.GAMMON, American Historical Association, Washington, D.C.
ANTONIO GAYOSO, U.S. Agency for International Development
GREGORY GUROFF, U.S. Information Agency
JOHN HARDT, Congressional Research Service, U.S. Congress
C.ELTON HINSHAW, American Economic Association, Nashville, Tenn.
JERRY HOUGH, Center on East-West Trade, Investment and Communications, Duke University
CARLA HOWERY, American Sociological Association, Washington, D.C.
JOSEPH B.KADANE, Department of Statistics, Carnegie-Mellon University
MELVIN KOHN, Department of Sociology, Johns Hopkins University
CORA MARRETT, U.S. National Science Foundation
DANIEL MATUSZEWSKI, International Research and Exchanges Board, Washington, D.C.
PEGGY McINERNY, The Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies, Washington, D.C.
JAMES MILLAR, Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies, George Washington University
FREDERIC A.MOSHER, Carnegie Corporation of New York
ALEXANDER RABINOWITCH, International Programs, Indiana University
DENIS NISSIM-SABAT, Department of Psychology, Mary Washington College
MATTHEW SAGERS, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce
ANN IMLAH SCHNEIDER, U.S. Department of Education
GERSON SHER, U.S. National Science Foundation
BRIAN SILVER, Department of Political Science, Michigan State University
JEROME E.SINGER, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences
IRENE M.STECKLER, Library of Congress
MICHAEL SWAFFORD, Paragon Research International, Nashville, Tenn.
RICHARD F.THOMPSON, Neuroscience Program, University of Southern California
CASSANDRA TURCZAK, U.S. National Science Foundation
Staff, National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council
PETER MACDONALD, Office of International Affairs
PAULA RIES, Office of Scientific and Engineering Personnel
PAUL C.STERN, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education
LEE WALKER, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education
GARY WAXMONSKY, Office of International Affairs
SUZANNE H.WOOLSEY, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education