Guidebook for Evaluating, Selecting, and Implementing Suburban Transit Services (2006)

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3Understanding Regional Activity Patterns The urban form of modern cities and contemporary sub- urbia is increasingly characterized by multiple activity centers. The polycentric city is a complex hierarchy of centers, corri- dors, and areas in between.Whereas a large share of trips in the pre-automobile city went radially to and from the downtown, the modern city is characterized by dispersed travel patterns in all directions. This is evidenced by the continuous rise in suburb-to-suburb travel over the last few decades. The initial step in designing such a regional transit system involves understanding the intrinsically related patterns of development and travel demand. Travel demand is the sum of the individual trip origins and destinations of every traveler in the region. While this information can be represented in large trip matrices, as is done in travel demand models, a use- ful method for visualizing regional development patterns and travel demand is to analyze the activity surface. As illustrated in Figure 2-1, an urban area can be thought of as a surface that represents the relative importance of each point across the metropolitan region. The relative importance of a point is a function of the number of activities that serve as the ends of trips, such as jobs, shopping, medical care, recre- ation, and housing. The activity surface of a pre-automobile city was a relatively simple convex surface with a noteworthy peak over the downtown, a single mountain in a large plain. The modern, polycentric city has a much more complex, bumpy activity surface characterized by peaks of various heights over the traditional downtown and outlying centers, ridges connecting peaks along major corridors, and plains in between, where people live in sprawling subdivisions. Supported by tools such as the activity surface, this project explores the relationships between the land-use characteris- tics and travel patterns of the service area, the operating char- acteristics of the service, and the service’s performance in a range of suburban environments. These relationships provide guidelines that transit operators and policy makers may use to inform their decisions on where to operate service and what characteristics the service should have, given different performance expectations. TCRP Report 55 identified six types of suburban land-use environments based on their diversity of uses and how the intensity of their development (i.e., density) relates to that of the surrounding area. These environments included residen- tial suburbs, balanced mixed-use suburbs, suburban cam- puses, edge cities, suburban corridors, and exurban corporate enclaves. Thinking back to the discussion of the activity sur- face, each topographical feature of the activity surface corre- sponds to one or more of these suburban environments: • Peaks represent the major activity centers, such as down- towns, shopping centers, edge cities, and community busi- ness districts. In a polycentric city, peaks have various heights based on their relative share of the region’s total residential, employment, commercial, medical, and recre- ational activity. Edge cities and downtowns of balanced mixed-use suburbs are examples of peaks. Peaks generally have urban characteristics, such as a diversity of uses, higher densities, and perhaps deterrents to driving. • Ridges represent the major travel corridors in a region. These corridors frequently connect peaks and are often lined with higher-density residential, employment, or com- mercial uses. Suburban corridors are examples of ridges. Ridges have more suburban qualities, such as less diversity and large gaps in the street wall, although there may well be deterrents to driving in the form of traffic congestion. • Points represent places in the region that are destinations for trips, but that do not necessarily fall on peaks or ridges. Suburban areas are characterized by a relatively high share of destinations that are not located within walking distance of other major activity centers or on major transportation corridors. Suburban campuses and exurban corporate C H A P T E R 2 Tools, Techniques, and Technology for Suburban Service Development

enclaves are examples of points. Points are largely charac- teristic of suburbs, without the qualities of urban areas. • Plains represent the large areas of relatively low-density residential, office, or industrial development that fre- quently serve as one end of a trip. Residential suburbs are an example of plains. Like points, plains are largely a phe- nomenon of suburbia and do not have high diversity, den- sity, or deterrents to driving. Features of Suburban Transit Services As suburbs expand and the suburban population grows, it is increasingly apparent that traditional transit service is often not suited to meet suburban mobility and accessibility needs. In spite of significant investments in transit services, transit’s mode share is challenged overall, even for commute trips, which are often perceived as transit’s biggest market. As discussed previously, the private automobile offers the con- venience and flexibility that many people often take for granted in their daily travels. However, congestion, fuel costs, mobility needs of the transportation disadvantaged, and environmental concerns require that alternatives to private automobiles and driving alone be viable and available. With a commitment to providing transportation options in suburban locations comes the understanding among pub- lic decision makers and transit agencies that traditional tran- sit options may not be effective and must be redefined to better serve suburban markets. Traditional fixed route may not meet passengers’ mobility and accessibility needs. There- fore, there needs to be a commitment to try new things and develop new ways to provide transit that offers benefits simi- lar to automobiles. Benefits of private cars, and consequently desirable attributes of suburban transit, include • Near door-to-door service, • Flexible routing and scheduling, • Service on demand, • Relatively fast trips, • Real-time information, • Comfort, and • Convenience. In order to provide these attributes in suburban transit service, transit agencies must develop transportation solu- tions that are tailored to the specific circumstances of the service area. Services must reflect the transportation needs of the community, the operating environment, and demographics. Established Suburban Transit Services Fixed Route Among the most commonly deployed transit services, fixed routes are routes that follow a predetermined alignment and schedule. Fixed routes may operate more frequently than other service forms and provide service during peak hours or all day. Fixed-route services include • Trunk, • Express, • Limited service, • Circulators, and • Shuttles and feeders. Deviated Fixed Route In deviated fixed-route service, vehicles have the flexibility to move within a given service area as long as they arrive on schedule at various time points. Often the time points are located at transit hubs where passengers can transfer to trunk or express service. Deviated fixed routes frequently use smaller vehicles, whether they are small buses or large vans. It is also common for these routes to have their own identities, with unique logos and color schemes. Deviated routes generally take one of three forms. The most flexible form of deviated fixed route is essentially a demand-responsive service that has two time points, one on each end of a service area. A slightly more restricted service might have a vehicle running along a route between four or five time points, but deviating as necessary for passengers to board and alight. Another common variation is to have a vehicle follow a fixed route, but allow it to deviate up to a given distance (typically one-half or three-quarters of a mile) from the route to pick up or drop off passengers. Examples of deviated fixed-route services include • Circulators and • Shuttles. 4 Figure 2-1. Conceptual activity surfaces by urban form. Post-Automobile Polycentric City Pre-Automobile Monocentric City

Demand-Responsive Service Demand-responsive service, also called “dial-a-ride,” schedules vehicles to pick up and drop off passengers throughout a service area, providing high-quality, curb-to- curb service for the general public and persons with disabili- ties. These services are particularly effective in areas with low-density development and/or widely dispersed trip gener- ators that are hard to serve with a fixed route or full-size coach. All of these trips require a call-in request. Advance notice requirements vary from days in advance to the actual time of the desired trip. Demand-responsive services use smaller vehicles—small buses, large vans, or taxis—which can navigate residential neighborhoods and narrow streets. Because of smaller passenger loads, vehicles can follow more direct routes between origins and destinations, thereby reducing trip travel times. Technological advances, including improved dispatching capabilities and real-time information, should allow transit systems to significantly reduce advance reservation requirements. Similar to the deviated fixed-route service described above, demand-responsive service is generally provided as shuttle, feeder, or circulator service. Demand-responsive service is probably most commonly associated with social service trans- portation and is also used to meet the paratransit requirements of ADA. In the private sector, airport shuttles are probably the most common application of demand-responsive service. In the overall network of suburban transit services, demand- responsive service plays a critical role in serving niche markets that are not well served by fixed-route service and appears to be positioned to increase its relative profile in coming years. Subscription Service Subscription service offers a tailored transit service to spe- cific individuals when they have paid a subscription fee. Many subscription services originated as private enterprises and have transitioned to public operation, although they may also be the result of a public-private partnership. Subscription vehicles, whether they be coaches or smaller vehicles, collect passengers at predetermined times and locations. Trips are scheduled to best meet the needs of a particular trip’s passen- gers in terms of the origin, destination, and pick-up and drop-off times. Subscription services tend to operate from residential areas that have low average densities but have con- centrations of residents who have similar work locations. Subscription services often experience farebox recovery ratios much higher than other transit services because the demand for service is known in advance and because such a premium service demands higher fares. For the purposes of this document, the discussion of sub- scription services is limited to commute service because this is the market upon which most public and public-private partnerships focus. However, it is worth noting that other subscription services exist for markets such as childcare, sporting events, and travel to airports. The most common examples of public subscription services are commuter buses and vanpools. Although some ADA trips are called “subscrip- tion” trips because they involve a standing reservation for a particular trip made by a specific passenger, they are not included in this discussion. Rather, these trips are classified as being part of demand-responsive service. Examples include • Subscription commute buses and • Vanpools. Innovative Suburban Transit Service Innovations in technology have also led to innovations in various aspects of suburban transit services. These include the availability of real-time information to assist both cus- tomers and service providers with schedule adherence, oper- ating conditions, and so forth. In demand-responsive services, real-time scheduling and dispatch programs can improve efficiency and effectiveness. Some systems have employed the use of cell phones to ensure more direct com- munication between customers and operators. Smartcards have become another means of improving transfers between systems and services while reinforcing the goal of seamless travel. In addition, vehicle design features, such as low-floor buses, have made accessing the vehicles easier for all age groups, and automated stop announcements have assisted in the consistent availability of this information for people with disabilities. Examples include the following: • Technology and infrastructure improvements, • Real-time information, • Transit preferential treatment, • Vehicle modifications, and • Fare technology. Transit Services and the Activity Space The previously described activity surface provides the basis for relating the spatial distribution of travel demand and the optimal arrangement of transit centers, line-haul routes, and other transit services. All transit services can be organized around the topographical features on the activity surface, as shown below: • Peaks are generally the best locations for transit hubs because the concentration of routes serves travel demand from all directions and because the concentration of trip ends minimizes the need to transfer. Peaks are the largest 5

destinations for travel by all modes and are generally served by the highest-frequency, highest-capacity transit services in a region. • Ridges are generally the best locations for traditional line- haul transit services, including rail and fixed-route bus services, since they have a relatively high number of trip ends within walking distance and since the mix of uses provides a source of relatively high, all-day travel demand. • Points are among the most difficult locations to effectively serve with fixed-route transit. Not only are points geo- graphically dispersed, but their travel demand also tends to be concentrated at certain times of day. As a result, these places tend to be poorly served by transit. Frequently, they receive little or no service at non-peak times, are served by dedicated trips or scheduled route deviations that can con- fuse customers, or require customers to walk a long dis- tance to a mainline bus route. • Plains are also notoriously difficult to serve with fixed- route transit because of the low density, the coarsely grained mix of land uses, and the lack of well-connected pedestrian facilities frequently found in suburban residential areas. Land-Use Assessment In assessing the land-use conditions within the transit ser- vice areas, the research team considered the “four D’s”: density, diversity, design, and deterrents to driving. These measures were chosen in order to evaluate the level of transit support- iveness of each service area. Density The density indicator was measured by calculating the number of people, households, and employed people in the study area. Data were most often available at the traffic analysis zone (TAZ) level provided by the metropolitan planning organization (MPO) in that region. In some cases, particularly for numbers of people and households, data were provided in different units of geography, such as cen- sus tracts. Diversity To assess the diversity of activities occurring in each ser- vice area, the research team evaluated the mix of industries and land uses present. Industry data on employment in each service area, when available from MPOs or other sources, were summarized and presented as well. Land-use data in GIS format were also obtained from MPOs, at times at the parcel level. Design Design was measured in terms of sidewalk and street con- nectivity and whether the area would qualify as an “urban place.” Sidewalk connectivity was chosen as an indicator of the ability for pedestrians to walk to transit stops. This was evaluated on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 indicating the highest level of sidewalk coverage. As shown in Table 2-1, the numerical measures are correlated with descriptions from the perspective of a pedes- trian or a planner, depending on the training level of the rater. 6 Table 2-1. Rating system for sidewalk coverage. Rating Criteria for planners Criteria for laypersons 1 Most streets do not have sidewalks. A person cannot walk there; he/she must use the street. 2 Many streets do not have sidewalks—there are many gaps in sidewalks. It is difficult to walk there—there are lots of gaps in the sidewalk. 3 There are sidewalks on atleast one side of most streets. A person could walk there but it would not be very easy or pleasant. 4 There are sidewalks on nearly every street, but not always on both sides. It is fairly easy to walk there but there are some places where it could be improved (e.g., crosswalks, lighting needed). 5 There are sidewalks on both sides of nearly every street. It is very easy to walk there (extensive sidewalks, crosswalks, pedestrian crossing lights). Rating Description Aerial View 1 Very low level of street coverage; mostly a few collectors or arterials with a few cul-de-sacs. 2 Cul-de-sacs and curvilinear roads predominate; there are few areas with grid coverage. 3 Significant grid coverage but also a number of areas with cul-de-sacs and dead ends. 4 Extensive grid network with a few cul-de-sacs and dead ends. 5 Complete grid network with no cul-de-sacs or dead ends. Table 2-2. Rating system for street connectivity.

7• Does the service area include a place where there are few, if any, parking lots in front of buildings? • Does the service area include a place where there is high street wall continuity—a place where buildings are lined up next to each other with few gaps, providing a vibrant place for pedestrians to walk? Deterrents to Driving Deterrents to driving are characteristics of a service area that have the potential to encourage more people to choose transit over driving. The research team evaluated two meas- ures: parking costs and transit priority features. Parking costs were defined in terms of average daily cost of off-street park- ing. If the study area included a place where free parking is generally not available, the value of this binary value was defined as “yes.” Transit priority features include traffic signal priority, queue jump lanes, exclusive transit lanes, or busways. The transit priority features measure was reported as either “yes” or “no” depending on whether the suburban transit service made use of any of these features. The street network was evaluated for its level of connectiv- ity to determine whether transit riders would have options for direct routes to transit stops. This rating was also done on a scale of 1 to 5, with greatest connectivity being a 5. Images of sample street networks for each of the five levels were chosen to give raters a visual reference. Additionally, a text descrip- tion characterizing each level of connectivity was used as a guide, as shown in Table 2-2. The final element of the design measures was evaluating whether a suburban service area included any places that could be characterized as urban in terms of development patterns, street space, or walkability. This was a yes/no eval- uation of whether the study area has a place with buildings fronting on the street and defining a strong public space, such as a traditional “Main Street.” If the person evaluating the area could answer “yes” to all of the following questions, the area was determined to have a place with “urban” char- acteristics. • Does the service area include a place where most buildings are adjacent to the sidewalk, not set back from the sidewalk?