Index
A
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), see Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Activity level
during lactation, 100
research needed on, 238
Adipose tissue, in lactating women, 201-202
see also Fat
Adolescent mothers
breastfeeding rate and duration of, 4, 33
determinants of breastfeeding in, 44-45
milk volume in, 87
Adolescents
iron intake by, 229
vitamin A intake by, 229
Age
and breastfeeding rate and duration, 32, 33
and milk volume, 87
and RDAs, 214
Agent Orange, in human milk, 178
AIDS, see Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Albumin, in human milk, 136
Alcohol consumption
and infant health, 9-10, 176-177
and milk volume, 89
research needed on, 242
Alkaline phosphatase, in human milk, 139
Allergies
in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 167-168, 180
American Academy of Pediatrics, recommendations of, 131, 157, 161
American Indians, dietary intake by, 67, 70, 71, 73
Amylase, in human milk, 139
Anemia, iron deficiency, 159
Anthropometric measurements
changes occurring during lactation, 202-203
in lactating women, 54, 58-62, 63
and milk volume, 98-99
and successful lactation, 5
use of, 53-54
Antiinfectious agents, in human milk, 133-137, 139, 166
Anti-inflammatory agents, in human milk, 138, 166
Antimicrobial factors, in human milk, 133-137, 139, 166
Antiprotease, in human milk, 139
Anxiety
and milk volume, 88
research needed on, 241
Apoproteins, in lactating women, 54, 58
Arsenic, in human milk, 178
Ascorbic acid, see Vitamin C
Assessment, see Nutritional status, assessment of
Atherosclerosis, effect of infant feeding on development of, 172
Atopic dermatitis, 168
Attitudes, and breastfeeding rate, 22
Autocrine control, of milk production, 84
B
Basal metabolic rate (BMR), during lactation, 100
Benefit, indicators of, 51-52
Beriberi, 126
Biceps skinfold thickness, 60, 62
Bile salt-dependent lipase, in human milk, 132, 139
Bioavailability, of nutrients, research needs, 239
Biochemical indicators
and successful lactation, 5
use of, 52-53
Biotin
in lactating women, 57
Birth weight
cigarette smoking and, 89
and milk volume, 85-86
and nutrient utilization, 154-155
Black mothers
breastfeeding rate and duration of, 4, 29-30, 32, 33
determinants of breastfeeding in, 39-42
Black women
calcium intake by, 229
magnesium intake by, 229
vitamin A intake by, 229
BMR, during lactation, 100
Body mass index, 60
and milk volume, 98
Body weight, see Weight
Bone mass, lactation and, 205-206
Bone metabolism, during and after lactation, 204
Bone mineralization, effect of lactation on, 204-206
Botulism, infant, 174
Breads, recommended daily servings of, 230
Breast(s), development and physiology of, 83-84
Breast abscesses, continued breastfeeding with, 169
Breast cancer, effect of breastfeeding on, 10, 206-208
Breastfeeding
beliefs about, 45-46
capability for, 10-11
current statistics for, 32-39
external constraints on, 46
health care in support of, 12-14, 240
history of, 28-32
lactation vs., 28
minimal, 25
reasons to support, 22-23
at work, 44
Breastfeeding duration
adolescent mothers, 33
current statistics on, 4, 32-39
defined, 24
determinants of, 39-46
employed mothers, 38-39, 40-41
geographic differences in, 35
Hispanic mothers, 37
Southeast Asian mothers, 38
WIC mothers, 36
Breastfeeding practices, recommendations for, 14
Breastfeeding rates
adolescent mothers, 33
current statistics on, 4, 32-39
day care and, 22
determinants of, 39-46
educational differences in, 30-33, 45
employed mothers, 22, 38-39, 40-41
ethnic differences in, 29-33, 39-43
geographic differences in, 32, 34, 35
limitations of data on, 36-37
Objectives for the Nation and, 21
social attitudes and, 22
Southeast Asian mothers, 38
work and, 22
C
Cadmium, in human milk, 178
Caffeine
research needed on, 242-243
Calcium
absorption during lactation of, 204, 225
amount in human milk, 116, 283
body content and output in milk of, 204, 219
dietary sources of, 231
estimated vs. recommended intake of, 224-225
intake by black women, 229
intake by low-income women, 229
long-term demand for, 218, 219
margin of safety in RDA for, 224
maternal intake and milk content of, 8, 128
mean daily intake of, 68-70, 223
milk content and increment in RDA for, 217
nutrient density for, 223
and osteoporosis, 204-206, 225
supplementation of, 232
Carbohydrates, in human milk, 114, 124, 133-134
β-Carotene
blood of lactating women, 57
colostrum, 115
human milk, 125
Case fatality studies, 258-259
Caseins, in human milk, 121
Cells, in human milk, 114, 137
Centers for Disease Control (CDC), recommendations concerning breastfeeding and HIV, 171
Cereals, recommended daily servings of, 230
Child spacing
breastfeeding and, 200
and infant morbidity, 166
and infant mortality, 174
Chloride, in human milk, 116, 129, 283
Cholesterol
and atherosclerosis, 172
levels in lactating women, 54, 58
maternal intake and milk content of, 124
Chromium, in human milk, 116
Chronic illnesses, protective effect against, 168-169, 243-244
Cigarette smoking
and milk volume, 88-89
recommendations concerning, 15, 104
research needed on, 242
Circumference measurements, of lactating women, 61
Cocaine in human milk, and infant health, 177
Coffee, effect on iron content of human milk, 176
see also Caffeine
Cognitive development, and infant feeding method, 165-166
Colic in breastfed infants
cigarette smoking and, 88
maternal diet and, 12, 168, 180, 182
Colostrum, 115
vitamin E content of, 126
vitamin K content of, 126
zinc content of, 130
Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation, 2, 24
Complement, in human milk, 136
Copper
in infant nutrition, 160
serum, 53
Cortisol, in human milk, 138
Cotinine, 177
Crohn's disease, infant feeding method and, 169
Cytomegalovirus, transmission via breastfeeding, 9, 169, 181
D
Dairy products
avoidance of, 232
and colic of breastfed infants, 12, 168
Day care, 44
and breastfeeding rate, 22
DDE, in human milk, 178
DDT, in human milk, 178
Dermatitis, atopic, 168
Developed countries, see Industrialized countries
Developing countries
energy reserves and milk volume in, 98-99
gastrointestinal infections in infants in, 166
infant mortality in, 172-174, 263-276
maternal nutrition and infant growth in, 164-165
patterns of infant growth in, 161-162
Development, of infant, see Infant growth and development
Diabetes mellitus, 169
Dichlorodiphenyl ethane (DDE), in human milk, 178
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), in human milk, 178
Dietary intake
changes during lactation in, 62-63
data from nationally representative samples on, 64-67
data from nonrepresentative samples on, 65, 66-67, 68-73
data from various population groups on, 73
determination of usual, 62-73
difficulties in measuring, 62
estimated vs. recommended, 220-228
extent of lactation and, 63-64
longitudinal data on, 65
and milk volume, 5-6
recommendations on, 12, 64, 66-67, 229-231
research needed on, 18
with restrictive eating patterns, 13, 15
see also Energy intake
Dietary restriction, see Restrictive eating patterns
Dioxins, in human milk, 178
Drug use
and infant health, 9, 10, 175-176, 177
recommendations on, 15, 16, 181
E
Eczema, human milk and168, 180
Educational differences, in breastfeeding rate, 30-33, 45
EGR activation coefficients, 158-159
Electrolytes, in human milk, 116, 129
Elimination diet, 12, 180, 182
Employed mothers
barriers to breastfeeding for, 44
breastfeeding rate and duration of, 22, 33, 38-39, 40-41
determinants of breastfeeding in, 43-44
Energy balance, research needed on, 18, 238
Energy demands, of lactation, 213
Energy intake
breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 162
by lactating women, mean values for, 68-70
weight and, 214
see also Dietary intake
Energy reserves, and milk volume, 98-99
Energy restriction, see Restrictive eating patterns
Energy supplementation, and milk volume, 94-98
Energy utilization
infant nutrition, 154-155
research needed on, 239
Engorgement, 84
Epidermal growth factor, in human milk, 132, 138
Erythrocyte glutathione reductase (EGR) activation coefficients, 158-159
Ethnic differences, in breastfeeding rate and duration, 29-33, 39-43
Exclusive breastfeeding, 3, 24, 37
recommendations on, 179
Exercise
during lactation, 100
research needed on, 238
F
Famine, and milk volume, 92
Fasting
during lactation, 15
Fat
see also Adipose tissue; Lipids;
Obesity
Fatty acids
in human milk, 6
origins in human milk of, 120-121
and vegetarian diet, 123
Fatty acid synthetase, in human milk, 139
Fibronectin, in human milk, 136
Fluid intake
recommendations on, 12
Fluoride
infant nutrition, 160-161
supplementation of, 16, 160, 161, 180
Folate
amount in human milk, 116, 127-128, 216
biochemical values for, 56
body content of, 219
dietary sources of, 231
difficulty in measuring, 119
estimated vs. recommended intake of, 228
increment in RDA for, 216
infant nutrition, 158
long-term demand for, 218, 219
maternal nutrition and milk content of, 8, 127-128
mean daily intake of, 71-72, 222
nutrient density for, 222
RDA for, 222
Food allergies, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 167-168, 180 , 182
Food guides, summarized, 229-231
Food supplementation, and milk volume, 94-98
Formula, supplemental
and infant nutrition, 154
for slow weight gain, 16
G
Gastric filling and emptying, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants , 165
Gastrointestinal infections, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 166-167
Gastrointestinal maturation, of infant, 165
Geographic differences, in breastfeeding rate and duration, 32, 34 , 35
Gestational age
and milk composition, 116-118
and milk volume, 86
Glucoconjugates, in human milk, 133-134
Glucose level, in lactating women, 52
Glutamic pyruvic transaminase activity coefficient, erythrocyte, 56
Glutathione peroxidase
in human milk, 139
and selenium, 131
Glutathione reductase activity coefficient, erythrocyte, 56
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone, in ovulation, 198
Growth, of infant, see Infant growth and development
Growth factors, in human milk, 138
H
Health care plan, recommendations for, 12-14, 240
Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn, 156-157
Hepatitis B virus, transmission via breastfeeding, 169, 181
Heroin, use by lactating women and infant health, 177
Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 37
Hispanic mothers
determinants of breastfeeding in, 42-43
Hormones, in human milk, 138
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), transmission via breastfeeding , 9, 170-171, 243
Human T lymphocytotropic virus type I (HTLV-1), transmission via breastfeeding, 9, 170
25-Hydroxycholecalciferol, in infant nutrition, 155-156
I
Illness
infants, see Infant morbidity
research needed on, 241
Immune function, research needed on infant's, 238-239
Immunoglobulin A (IgA), in human milk, 119, 132-136
Immunoglobulin G (IgG), in human milk, 136
Immunologic composition, of human milk, 134-137, 140
Immunologic diseases, chronic, 168-169
Immunoreactive parathyroid hormone (iPTH), serum levels of, 204
Income, and breastfeeding rate, 29, 30, 32, 33
Inducers, in human milk, 138-140
Industrialized countries
energy reserves and milk volume in, 98
energy restriction and milk volume in, 92
folate content of milk in, 127
gastrointestinal infections in infants in, 166
infant mortality in, 174-175
maternal nutrition and infant growth in, 164-165
patterns of infant growth in, 161
Infant growth and development
assessment of, 162-163
breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 8-9, 16, 161-163, 179
cognitive, 165-166
gastrointestinal and metabolic responses, 165
long-term, 163-164
maternal nutrition and, 164-165
patterns of, 161-162
recommendations on, 15-16, 181, 241
Infant health, 3
long-term effects of breastfeeding on, 243-244
recommendations concerning, 16, 181
Infant morbidity, 9
allergies, 167-168
atherosclerosis, 172
chronic diseases with immunologic basis, 168-169
infectious agents in human milk, 169-171
obesity, 171
protection against infectious diseases, 166-167, 173
short-term, 166-168
Infant mortality
abstracts of studies on, 252-260, 263-276
chronological list of studies on, 250-251
developing countries, 9, 172-174, 263-276
industrialized countries, 9, 172, 174-175
research needed on, 242
Infant nutrition
copper in, 160
fluoride in, 160-161
folate in, 158
indices needed for, 239
iron in, 159-160
maternal nutritional status inferred from, 53
nutrient stores and, 154
recommendations on, 179, 180-181
riboflavin in, 158-159
supplementary foods and, 154
vitamin A in, 156
vitamin B12 in, 157-158
vitamin D in, 155-156
vitamin K in, 156-157
zinc in, 160
Infectious diseases
protection against, 133-137, 139, 166-167, 173
research needed on, 238-239
transmitted via human milk, 9, 169-171
Insecticides, in human milk, 10, 16, 177-178
Insulin
human milk, 138
lactating women, 52
Interferon-α167
Iodine
amount in human milk, 116, 131-132, 217
increment in RDA for, 217
maternal intake and milk content of, 6, 8
mean daily intake of, 223
nutrient density for, 223
RDA for, 223
supplementation of, 141
iPTH, serum levels of, 204
Iron
amount in human milk, 116, 129, 217
body content of, 219
coffee consumption and, 176, 242-243
deficiency in, 159-160
increment in RDA for, 217
infant nutrition, 8, 16, 159-160
intake by adolescents, 229
long-term demand for, 218, 219
mean daily intake of, 68-70, 223
menstruation and, 218
nutrient density for, 223
RDA for, 223
recommendations on, 16
reserves of, 218
supplementation of, 159-160, 180
L
β-Lactalbumin 132
Lactation, vs. breastfeeding, 28,
see also Breastfeeding
Lactation performance, 25
maternal nutrition and, 237-238
Lactogenesis, 83
Lactose
amount in human milk, 116, 124, 280
intolerance, 232
ovulation and, 124
variations in milk content of, 117, 118
Lactose synthetase, in human milk, 139
Lead, in human milk, 178
Let-down, 84
alcohol consumption and, 89
stress and, 88
Leukocytes, in human milk, 119, 137
Linoleic acid, in eczema, 168
Linolenic acid, in eczema, 168
Lipases, in human milk, 139
Lipids
amount in human milk, 116, 281-282
blood values in lactating women, 54, 58
maternal intake and milk composition of, 123-124
origins in human milk of, 120-121
types in human milk, 114
variations in milk content of, 118
Lipoprotein lipase
human milk, 139
lactating women, 202
prolactin and, 121
Lymphocytes, in human milk, 137
Lymphoma, 169
Lysozyme, in-human milk, 133, 134, 135-136, 139
M
Macrophages, in human milk, 137
Magnesium
amount in human milk, 116, 217, 284
deficiency of, 226
dietary sources of, 231
estimated vs. recommended intake of, 225-226
incremental RDA for, 217
intake by black women, 229
maternal intake and milk content of, 127
mean daily intake of, 71-72, 223
nutrient density for, 223
RDA for, 223
serum, 55
Malnutrition, and milk volume, 91-94
Manganese, in human milk, 116, 130
MAR, 65n
Marijuana use by lactating women, and infant health, 177
Marital status, and breastfeeding rate and duration, 32, 33
Mastitis
continued breastfeeding with, 88, 169, 181
and electrolyte level of milk, 129
Maternal health, effects of lactation on
chronic illness, 244
osteoporosis, 204-206
return of ovulation, 10, 198-200
sexuality, 200-201
Maternal nutrition, see Nutritional status
Maternity leave, and breastfeeding rate, 22
Mature human milk, 115
Mean adequacy ratio (MAR), 65n
Medications
Menaquinone, 156
Menstruation
iron loss through, 218
Mercury, in human milk, 178
Metabolic rate
breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 165
during lactation, 100
Methylmalonic acid, urinary, 157
Micronutrients, mean dietary intake of, 65, 71, 72-73
Milk composition
antiinfectious agents, 133-137
anti-inflammatory agents, 138
carbohydrates, 124
classes of constituents, 113-114
colostrum, 115
difficulties in measuring, 118-120
electrolytes, 129
hormones, growth factors, and inducers, 139-140
lipids, 123-124
literature survey of data on, 279-284
mature human milk, 115
nonnutritive substances, 132-140
nutritional status and, 6-8, 121-132
origin of constituents, 120-121
preterm milk, 116-118
protein, 121-123
transitional milk, 115
variations in, 115-118
vitamins, 124-128
Milk-ejection reflex, see Let-down
Milk intake
by infant, 81
see also Milk volume
Milk production, 8
see also Milk volume
Milk volume
age and, 87
alcohol consumption and, 89
birth weight and, 85-86
breast development and physiology in, 83-84
cigarette smoking and, 88-89
dietary intake and, 5-6
and electrolyte level of milk, 129
energy balance and, 90-100
energy reserves and, 98-99
energy restriction and, 91-94
energy supplementation during lactation and, 94-97
energy supplementation during pregnancy and, 97-98
energy utilization during lactation and, 99-100
fluid intake and, 101-102
gestational age at delivery and, 86
illness and, 88
infant factors influencing, 84-87
maternal factors influencing, 87-102
measurement of, 81
nursing frequency and, 85
nutritional status and, 5, 90-100
oral contraceptive agents and, 89-90
parity and, 87
protein intake and, 100-101
self-regulation by infant of, 86-87
stress and, 88
substance use and, 88-89
weight loss and, 6, 93-94, 104
Mineral(s), in human milk, 114, 128, 129-132
Mineral intake
and milk composition, 6
research needed on, 18
Mineral supplements, recommendations on, 12
Minimal breastfeeding, 25
Molybdenum, amount in human milk, 116
Monosialogangliosides, in human milk, 133-134
N
NAR, 64n
National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES), 60
National Survey of Family Growth, 30, 31, 32, 89-90
Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 64-67
Native Americans, dietary intake of, 67, 70, 71, 73
Neutrophils, in human milk, 137
Niacin
amount in human milk, 116, 127, 216
increment in RDA for, 216
mean daily intake of, 68-70, 222
nutrient density for, 222
RDA for, 222
Nicotine, see Cigarette smoking
Night waking, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 165
Nitrogen balance, in lactating women, 52-53
Nitrogen compounds, in human milk, 114, 121-123
and maternal dietary intake, 63-64
and milk production, 85
recommendations on, 104
Nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR), 64n
Nutrient densities, 4, 220, 221-223, 224
Nutrient intake, see Dietary intake
Nutrient output
long-term, 214-220
Nutrient utilization
infant nutrition, 154-155
research needed on, 239
Nutritional monitoring, recommendations for, 16-17
Nutritional risk, identification of women at, 11, 17-18, 237
Nutritional screening, recommendations for, 12-14, 240
Nutritional status
biochemical measures of, 54, 55-57
effect of breastfeeding on, 10
changes in body weight and, 54-61
changes in skinfold thickness and, 62, 63
indicators of benefit for, 51-52
indicators of risk for, 51, 237
infant, see Infant nutrition
and infant growth, 164-165
and milk composition, 6-8, 121-132
normative indicators of, 51
research needed on indicators for, 17, 237
and return of ovulation, 198-200
use of anthropometric indicators for, 53-54
use of biochemical indicators for, 52-53
O
Obesity
breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 171
breastfeeding effect on maternal, 10, 201-204
and weight loss during lactation, 15
Oligosaccharides, in human milk, 133-134
Oral contraceptive agents
and milk volume, 89-90
and vitamin B6 content of milk, 127, 226
Oral elimination-challenge trial, 12, 180, 182
Osteocalcin, serum levels during lactation, 204
Otitis media, 167
Ovulation, effect of breastfeeding on, 10, 198-200
Oxaloacetate transaminase activity coefficient, erythrocyte, 56
Oxytocin
alcohol consumption and, 89
cigarette smoking and, 88-89
in human milk, 138
in lactogenesis, 84
P
Pantothenic acid
difficulty in measuring, 119
supplementation of, 128
Parathyroid hormone, immunoreactive, 204
Parity
and bone mass, 205
and breastfeeding rate and duration, 32, 33
and milk volume, 87
and weight gain, 203
Partial breastfeeding, 3, 24, 37
PCBs, in human milk, 178
Peroxidase, in human milk, 139
Pesticides, in human milk, 10, 16, 177-178
Phosphoglucomutase, in human milk, 139
Phospholipids
in blood of lactating women, 58
maternal intake and milk composition of, 124
Phosphorus
amount in human milk, 116, 217
increment in RDA for, 217
maternal intake and milk content of, 128
mean daily intake of, 68-70, 223
nutrient density for, 223
RDA for, 223
Phylloquinone, 156
Physical activity
during lactation, 100
research needed on, 238
Plasma volume, in lactating vs. nonlactating women, 52
PLP, see Vitamin B6
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), in human milk, 178
Postpartum care, and breastfeeding rate, 22, 240
Postpartum period, variations in milk composition in, 115, 117
Potassium, in human milk, 116, 129, 282
Preterm infants
and human milk composition, 116-118
and milk volume, 86
zinc and vitamin A in, 120
Progesterone
in lactogenesis, 83
and oral contraceptive agents, 90
Prolactin
cigarette smoking and, 88
energy restriction and, 92, 93, 96
in human milk, 138
and lipids in human milk, 121
Proteases, in human milk, 139
Protein(s)
amount in human milk, 116, 122, 215, 280-281
body content of, 219
long-term demand for, 218, 219
measurement of, 122
metabolism in lactating women, 52
nonnutritive functions of, 132, 134-137
nutrient density for, 221
Protein intake
increment in RDA for, 215
and milk composition, 122
RDA for, 221
research needed on, 18
Psychological benefits, 23, 242
Pyridoxal 5-phosphate (PLP), see Vitamin B6
R
Racial differences
breastfeeding rate and duration, 4, 29-30, 32, 33, 37, 38
determinants of breastfeeding, 39-43
nutrient intake, 229
Radionuclides, in breast milk, 179
RDAs, see Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs)
Recommendations
breastfeeding all infants, 11
breastfeeding practices, 14, 104
health care plan, 12-14
identifying risk of depleted nutrient stores, 11
infant growth and nutrition, 15-16, 180-181
maternal diet, 12, 13, 140-141, 181, 233
milk volume, 104
nutritional assessment, 74
nutritional monitoring, 16-17
physical activity, 104
substance use and abuse, 15, 104
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), 64
age and, 214
energy intake and, 231
estimated intake vs., 64-74, 220-228
incremental vs. absolute values for, 214
margin of safety in, 224
nutrient secretion in milk vs., 213-214, 215-217
Research needs and recommendations, 17-18, 21, 54, 71, 137, 167, 171, 174, 175, 176, 200, 201, 206, 237-245
Respiratory syncytial virus infections, 167
Restrictive eating patterns, 13, 232
allergies and colic, 12, 180, 182
and lactation performance, 238
and milk volume, 91-94
and nutrient intake, 229-232
Retinol-binding protein, in lactating women, 57
Retinyl esters, in human milk, 125
Riboflavin
amount in human milk, 116, 126-127, 216
increment in RDA for, 216
infant nutrition, 158-159
mean daily intake of, 68-70, 222
nutrient density for, 222
RDA for, 222
urinary, 56
Rickets, 155
Ross Laboratories Mothers Survey, 29, 31-38
Rotavirus, 167
Rubella virus, transmission via breastfeeding, 169, 181
S
Salmonella, in breast milk, 169
Selenium
amount in human milk, 116, 130, 217
biochemical values for, 55, 130
increment in RDA for, 217
maternal intake and milk content of, 6, 8, 130-131
mean daily intake of, 72-73, 223
nutrient density for, 223
RDA for, 223
Self-regulation, of milk intake, 86-87
Sexuality, in postpartum period, 200-201
Shigella, in breast milk, 169
Skinfold thickness
measurements of, 60-61, 62, 63
and successful lactation, 5
Social attitudes, and breastfeeding rate, 22
Socioeconomic status, and breastfeeding rate, 29, 30, 32, 33
Sodium, in human milk, 116, 129, 282
Solid foods
and infant nutrition, 154
effect on human milk intake, 86
Somatostatin, in human milk, 138
Southeast Asian mothers
breastfeeding rate and duration of, 38
determinants of breastfeeding in, 43
Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)
breastfeeding rates in, 29n, 32-36
food packages by, 22
studies of dietary intake by participants of, 67, 72, 73
Stress
and electrolyte level of milk, 129
and milk volume, 88
research needed on, 241
Substance use and abuse, maternal
and infant health, 9, 10, 176-177
and milk volume, 88-89
recommendations concerning, 15, 242-243
Sucking strength, and milk volume, 85
Suckling
inadequate, and electrolyte level of milk, 129
and return of ovulation, 198
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 174, 257, 258
Sulfhydryl oxidase, in human milk, 139
Sunlight, infant exposure to, 16, 155-156
see also Ultraviolet light
Supplements, recommendations for, 12, 13, 15, 16, 227, 232, 233
Surgeon General's Workshop on Breastfeeding & Human Lactation, 21
T
Taurine, in human milk, 122-123
T cells, in human milk, 137
Teenage mothers, see Adolescent mothers
Test weighing, 81
Thermogenesis, during lactation, 100
Thiamin
amount in human milk, 116, 126, 215
dietary sources of, 231
estimated vs. recommended intake of, 227-228
maternal intake and milk content of, 126
mean daily intake of, 68-70, 222
nutrient density for, 222
RDA for, 222
urinary, 56
Thioesterase, in human milk, 139
Thymic-dependent lymphocytes, in human milk, 137
Thyroid hormones, in human milk, 138
α-Tocopherol, see Vitamin E
Transitional milk, 115
Transketolase activity coefficient, erythrocyte, 56
Triglycerides
in blood of lactating women, 54, 58
origins in human milk of, 120, 121
Triplets, breastfeeding of, 83, 214
Tumor necrosis factor-α138
Twins, breastfeeding of, 83, 214
U
Ultraviolet light, exposure to, 13
and vitamin D content of milk, 125
see also Sunlight
Urinary methylmalonic acid (UMMA), 157
V
Vegetarian diet
fatty acids in, 123
recommendations with, 13, 140, 232
studies of dietary intake by women eating, 67, 70, 71
vitamin B12 deficiency with, 8, 157, 158, 181
Vibrio cholerae, 167
Vitamin(s)
difficulties in measuring, 119
research needed on, 18
Vitamin A
amount in human milk, 116, 125, 215
biochemical values in lactating women, 57
body content of, 219
increment in RDA for, 215
infant nutrition, 156
intake by adolescent women, 229
intake by black women, 229
intake by low-income women, 229
long-term demand for, 218, 219
maternal intake and milk content of, 125
mean daily intake of, 68-70, 221
nutrient density for, 221
preterm infants, 120
RDA for, 221
reserves of, 218
supplementation of, 125
Vitamin B6
amount in human milk, 116, 127, 216
deficiency in, 226-227
dietary intake and levels in milk of, 8, 127, 226
dietary sources of, 231
estimated vs. recommended intake of, 226-227
increment in RDA for, 216
margin of safety in RDA for, 224
mean daily intake of, 72-73, 140, 222
nutrient density for, 222
oral contraceptives and, 127, 226
plasma, 56
pyridoxal5-phosphate (PLP) and, 226-227
RDA for, 222
Vitamin B12
amount in human milk, 116, 128, 216
deficiency in, 157
increment in RDA for, 216
infant nutrition, 157-158
maternal intake and milk content of, 8, 128
mean daily intake of, 72-73, 222
nutrient density for, 222
RDA for, 222
serum, 56
vegetarian diet and, 140, 157, 181
Vitamin C
amount in human milk, 116, 126, 215
increment in RDA for, 216
maternal intake and milk content of, 126
mean daily intake of, 68-70, 222
nutrient density for, 222
plasma, 56
RDA for, 222
Vitamin D
age and RDA for, 214
amount in human milk, 116, 125, 215
difficulty in measuring, 119
increment in RDA for, 215
infant nutrition, 155-156
infant supplementation of, 156, 180
maternal intake and milk content of, 8, 125
maternal supplementation of, 125, 141, 232
mean daily intake of, 72-73, 221
nutrient density for, 221
RDA for, 221
recommendations on, 13, 16, 140, 141
Vitamin E
amount in human milk, 116, 126, 215
biochemical values in lactating women, 57
colostrum, 126
estimated vs. recommended intake of, 227
and immune system, 138-140
increment in RDA for, 215
maternal intake and milk content of, 126
mean daily intake of, 72-73, 221
nutrient density for, 221
RDA for, 221
supplementation of, 126
Vitamin K
amount in human milk, 116, 126, 215
colostrum, 126
deficiency in newborn, 156-157
increment in RDA for, 215
infant nutrition, 156-157
maternal milk intake and, 157
maternal supplementation of, 126, 157
mean daily intake of, 221
nutrient density for, 221
RDA for, 221
supplementation at birth, 8, 16, 157, 180
W
Weight
infant at birth, 85-86, 89, 154-155
mother and milk volume, 5, 98-99
mother and successful lactation, 5
Weight changes of mother, during lactation, 14-15, 54-61, 74, 202-203
Weight for length, in breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 162
Weight gain
breastfed vs. formula-fed infants, 8-9, 16, 161-163, 179
mother during lactation, 14-15, 59
mother and milk volume, 98-99
parity and, 203
see also Obesity
Weight loss, infant, 161
Weight loss, maternal
long-term, 203
mother and milk volume, 6, 93-94, 104
recommendations on, 14-15
Whey proteins, 121
White blood cells, in human milk, 119, 137
White mothers, breastfeeding rate and duration of, 32, 33
WIC, see Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)
Work, see Employed mothers
World Health Organization (WHO)
recommendation concerning breastfeeding and HIV, 171
recommendation concerning breastfeeding and oral contraceptive agents , 90, 122
X
Xanthine oxidase, in human milk, 139
Z
Zinc
absorption during lactation of, 225
amount in human milk, 116, 130, 217
biochemical values for, 53, 55
dietary sources of, 231
estimated vs. recommended intake of, 225
increment in RDA for, 217
infant nutrition, 160
margin of safety in RDA for, 224
maternal intake and milk content of, 130
mean daily intake of, 72-73, 223
nutrient density for, 223
preterm infants, 120
RDA for, 223
supplementation of, 130