Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY For general considerations on confinement and energy balance in fusion reactors: Post, R. F. l976. Nuclear Fusion. Annual Reviews of Energy l:2l3. Rose, D., and M. Clark. l96l. Plasmas and Controlled Fusion, Cam- bridge, Mass.: MIT Press. For an introduction to plasma physics: Artsimovich, L. l964. Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions. New York: Gordon & Breach. Krall, N., and A. Trivelpiece. l973. Principles of Plasma Physics. New York: McGraw-Hill. For a survey on fusion prospects: Brueckner, K., J. Yonas, H. Furth, and F. Ribe. l974. Physics and the Energy Problem. New York: American Institute of Physics. For a qualitative discussion of Tokamaks: Furth, H. P. l975. Tokamak Research. Nuclear Fusion l5:487-534. McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company/University of Wisconsin. February l976. Major Features of D-T Tokamak Fusion Reactor Systems. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI 472-l. For a detailed discussion of mirrors: Baldwin, D. April l977. End-loss Processes from Mirror Images. Reviews of Modern Physics 49 (No. 2):3l7-339. For a review of laser fusion: Brueckner, K., and S. Jorna. April l974. Laser-driven Fusion. Reviews of Modern Physics 46 (No. 2):325-367. K. A. Brueckner and Associates, Inc. September l976. Assessment of Laser-driven Fusion. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI ER-203. 37
38 A quantitative survey of recent fusion research is best found in the proceedings of the International Atomic Energy Agency biannual Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion meetings. For example, the proceedings of the l974 Tokyo and l976 Berchtesgaden meetings have been published by IAEA in Vienna. Summaries were published in Nuclear Fusion l6:l047. On reactor technology and conceptual design: Bloom, E. E., F. W. Wiffen, P. J. Maziasa, and J. O. Stiegler. October l976. Temperature and Fluence Limits for A-Type 3l6 Stainless Steel CTR Firsh Wall. Nuclear Technology 3l (No. l): ll5-l22. General Atomic Company. August l976. Applications of Low Atomic Number Ceramic Materials to Fusion Reactor First Wall. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI ER-2l6. These papers report results of a series of neutron irradiation experiments conducted on annealed and 20 percent cold-worked 3l6 stainless steel in a high flux mixed-spectrum fission reactor to simulate controlled thermonuclear research (CTR) first-wall displace- ment per atom (dpa) and helium production. Using previously sug- gested uniform strain in a uniaxial tensile test, estimates of temperature and fluence limits for this alloy are made. The large amounts of helium produced by irradiation in the mixed- spectrum fission reactor caused significantly more swelling than occurred in fast reactor irradiations (low helium generation rates). Cold working effectively suppressed swelling up to 550-600 degrees C. Using a criterion of l0 percent swelling and limited data on the fluence dependence of swelling, a first-wall life of l6.5 megawatt years per square meter (at 530 degrees C) for 20 percent cold- worked 3l6 stainless steel is estimated. Embrittlement may be the property that limits first-wall life. At 350 degrees C, acceptable ductility was retained in the cold- worked steel to very high damage levels: 49 dpa, 3320 atomic parts per million (appm) He. It appears that the 0.5 percent uniform strain criterion will not be limiting. At higher temperatures, however, this is not the situation. At 650 degrees C, the uniform and total plastic strain were zero in samples irradiated to 6l dpa and 4l40 appm He. At 575 degrees C, 0.5 percent uniform strain was retained in the cold-worked material to relatively high damage levels; however, the fractures were intergranular. The creep- rupture life at 550 degrees C and 45,000 psi was reduced by 50,000 compared to the unirradiated property. Generally greater embrittle- ment in the solution-annealed material suggests that cold-worked material would be preferred for CTR first-wall structures. The intergranular tensile fractures and marked reduction in ductil- ity and rupture life suggest that stress will have to be maintained at very low levels to prevent fracture. The loss of ductility indi- cates reductions in fatigue life that must be investigated.
39 Carlson, G. A., and R. W. Moir. l977. Mirror Machine Reactors. Pp. 555-574 in G. L. Kulcinski and N. M. Burleigh eds. Proceed- ings of Second ANS Topical Meeting on the Technology of Controlled Nuclear Fusion, Richland, Wash., September 2l-23, l976. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. CONF-760935-P2. Recent mirror reactor conceptual design studies are described. Considered in detail is the design of "standard" Yin-Yang fusion power reactors with classical and enhanced confinement. It is shown that to be economically competitive with estimates for other future energy sources, mirror reactors require a considerable increase in Q, or major design simplifications, or preferably both. These improve- ments may require a departure from the "standard" configuration. Two attractive possibilities, both of which would use much of the same physics and technology as the "standard" mirror, are the field- reversed mirror and the end-stoppered mirror. Clarke, J. F. June l976. High Beta Flux-Conserving Tokamaks. Oak Ridge: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. ORNL/TM-5429. In any magnetically confined fusion device, there is a premium on operation at the highest possible beta because the fusion power out- put at a fixed magnetic field depends on the square of the beta. Since much of the capital cost of a magnetically confined fusion reactor is associated with the production of magnetic fields, high beta operation is a necessary ingredient in the formulation of a low capital cost system. With regard to Tokamaks, there is a widely held conception that the attainable beta is limited by equilibrium constraints. This has led to the design of a number of low beta Tokamak reactor systems, and has thereby imposed severe constraints on the economic viability of these systems. It is the purpose of this memo to show that this widely used beta limit on Tokamaks is highly dependent on the method of achieving the high beta equili- brium and that a class of systems exists which is not subject to any equilibrium beta limit at all. In these systems the ultimate limita- tion on beta must be found from magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD) stability theory, not from equilibrium considerations. Conn, R. W., and G. L. Kulcinski. l974. Technological Implciations for Tokamak Fusion Reactors of the UWMAK-I Conceptual Design. Pp. 56-60, in G. R. Hopkins, ed., Proceedings of the First Topical Meeting of the Technology of Controlled Nuclear Fusion. Springfield, Va.: NTIS. CONF-740402. Kulcinski, G. L., and R. W. Conn. l974. The Conceptual Design of a Tokamak Fusion Power Reactor, UWMAK. Pp. 38-55, Ibid. These two articles provide an in-depth analysis of one of the first self-consistent Tokamak reactor designs. While many improvements have been made since this reactor was designed, it does show how conceptual designs can be used to identify unforeseen problems, to provide a quantitative basis for future technology experimental
40 programs, and to lay the groundwork for economic parameter studies. The plasma physics, neutronics materials, responses, radiation damage, heat transfer, tritium handling, magnet design, power cycle, plant layout, and economics have been summarized in these articles while the details can be found in a University of Wisconsin report UWFDM-68, Vol. l and 2, l974. Conn, R. W., C. L. Kulcinski, and C. W. Maynard. l976. A Conceptual Design of a Helium Cooled, Solid Breeder, Tokamak Fusion Reactor System. Nuclear Engineering and Design 39:5-44. This article summarizes a much more detailed design report (UWFDM-ll2, l975) on a 5000-MW Tokamak Power Reactor Design. The object of this study was to uncover the technological problems associated with helium-cooled Tokamaks which use solid breeder materials. In-depth analyses of the plasma physics problems re- vealed the divertor collection plates to be a particularly difficult problem. Theuse of Be as a neutron multiplier, necessary for the attainment of breeding ratios > l in this stainless-steel structure blanket, also was identified as a limiting constraint to fusion power. In-depth analyses of the neutron leakage up divertor slots, magnet design, tritium extraction, and load leveling were also conducted. Davis, J. W., and G. L. Kulcinski. l976. Major Features of D-T Tokamak Fusion Reactor Systems. Nuclear Fusion l6 (No. 2):355. This article is an up-to-date (mid-l976) list of the proposed physics, material, coolant, tritium, neutronic, radiation damage, magnet power cycle, and economic parameters of various Tokamak reac- tor designs. Four classes of reactors were studied; near-term experimental devices (TT-60, TFTR, T-20, JET); three mid-term EPR's (ANL, ORNL, GA); two mid-term Russian hybrid reactors; and l0 long range power reactors. Tabular lists of the proposed operating parameters are given but the reader is cautioned that this listing only represents a snapshot in time and the design parameters may change in the future. General Atomic Company. September l975. Fusion Reactor Studies: Potential of Low-Z Materials for the First Wall. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI ll5-2. McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co., University of Wisconsin. February l976. Major Features of D-T Tokamak Fusion Reactor Systems. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI 472-l. Steiner, D., and A. P. Fraas. September-October l972. Preliminary Observations on the Radiological Implications of Fusion Power. Nuclear Safety l3 (No. 5):353-362. The radiological implications of fusion power are considered with reference to a conceptual fusion reactor based on the deuterium-tritium
4l fuel cycle. This analysis leads to the following observations: (l) The engineered features necessary to limit biological impact in the event of an accident may have to satisfy less stringent re- quirements in fusion-reactor design than in fission-reactor design. (2) During normal operation, tritium will present the primary source of radioactivity in effluents associated with fusion power. The monitoring of tritium in effluents will be required only at the re- actor site since the fuel-reprocessing system of a fusion reactor is an integral part of the reactor. Economic containment of tritium must be a major objective of fusion-reactor technology. (3) Long- lived radioisotopes will be produced in the structural components of fusion reactors. If niobium is employed as the structural material, disposal schemes similar to those currently proposed for fission- reactor wastes may be required. If vanadium is employed, recycling of the structural material appears possible. (4) Although afterheat removal will be quantitatively less of a problem with fusion power than with fission power, it must be considered in engineering design of fusion reactors. Kulcinski, G. L. l977. Materials Problems and Possible Solutions for Near Term Tokamak Fusion Reactors. Pp. 449-484. H. Knoepfel, ed. Proceedings of International School: Tokamak Reactors for BreakevenâA Critical Study of the Near Term Fusion Reactor Pro- gramme, Erice, Sicily, October, l976. Oxford: Pergamon Press. This paper examines the potential materials problems for the next round of Tokamak reactors (TFTR, JET, and T-20) which will be the first to burn tritium. The analysis is carried on to the three Experimental Power Reactor Designs in the U.S. proposed by ORNL, ANL, and General Atomics. A brief analysis of the problems for the Demonstration Power Reactors is also given. After an introduction to the mechanisms of radiation damage, the report concludes that there are no major neutron damage problems in the near term reactors. On the other hand, the higher wall loadings and temperatures in the EPR will cause problems for the stainless steel structures in designs which operate over 500°C. Excessive neutron leakage to superconducting magnets is also identified as a serious problem in some designs. The obvious conclusion from the DPR studies is that there is no known material that will last the lifetime of the reactor. The final section of the report addresses how one might go about testing materials to find those suitable for maximum lifetime in a fusion reactor. See also UWFDM-l86, University of Wisconsin Report - l976. Kulcinski, G. L. l976. Radiation Damage: The Second Most Serious Obstacle to Commercialization of Fusion Power. Pp. 1-l7 to 1-72 in J. S. Watson and F. W. Wiffen, eds., Radiation Effects and Tritium Technology for Fusion Reactors, Volume I. Springfield, Va.: NTIS. CONF-750989. The uniquesness of radiation damage associated with l4 MeV neutrons is discussed in relation to total displacements per atom (dpa), dpa
42 rate, gas production rate, gas-to-dpa ratio, and solid transmutation products. Comparisons are made with both light water and fast reac- tors to illustrate that it will be very difficult to use the latter facilities to provide information about high power fusion reactors. The one exception to this statement pertains to 3l6 SS in thermal reactors where the proper helium gas generation rate is achieved. Examination of the displacement and transmutation damage with respect to the dimensional, mechanical and physical properties of metals reveals that there is very little if any pertinent experi- mental data available. Providing this data will require a massive and time consuming test program that could spread over a decade or more. Considering the shear number of radiation damage problems and their magnitude leads one to believe that their solution will be a major barrier to the commercialization of fusion power, second only to those problems associated with plasma physics. Kulcinski, G. L., and R. W. Conn. l975. A Possible Scenario for Commercial Tokamak Power Reactors Based on the Results of the UWMAK-I and II Conceptual Design Studies. Madison: University of Wisconsin. UWFDM-l30. After a detailed review of the features of two large scale Tokamak designs, a possible approach to a commercial power plant is outlined. It departed from the proposed USAEC plan at that time in that it moved the EPR1s from l985 to the l990's and suggested that two facilities be inserted in the l985 time frame. One device would be aimed at expanding the knowledge of plasma physics scaling laws by using a large hydrogen plasma with l980 state-of-the-art fusion technology. The other device would use TFTR state-of-the-art plasma physics and will expand the fusion technology, especially in the area of irradiation of materials. The proposed scenario would aim at a Demonstration Power Plant in the 2000-20l0 time fram. Steiner, D. l97l. Neutron Irradiation Effects and Tritium Inven- tories Associated with Alternate Fuel Cycles for Fusion Reactors. Nuclear Fusion ll:305. In this note the D-T, D-D, and D- He fuel cycles are compared on the basis of neutron irradiation effects and tritium inventories. It is concluded that: l. The effects of neutron-induced damage within the blanket structural material will be comparable for each cycle. 2. The requirements for remote maintenance, radioactive-waste management, and emergency cooling will be similar for each cycle. 3. Tritium containment and management will be required for each cycle. Steiner, D. l975. The Technological Requirements for Power by Fusion. Nuclear Science and Engineering 58:107-l65.
43 In this paper the major technological requirements for fusion power, as implied by current conceptual designs of fusion power plants, are elucidated and assessed. As the point of departure, the four fusion reactor concepts that have been most thoroughly considered in these designs studies are described: they are the mirror, the theta-pinch, the Tokamak, and the laser-pellet concepts. The required technology is discussed relative to three principal areas of concern: (a) the power balance, that is, the unique power-handling requirements associated with the production of electrical power by fusion; (b) reactor design, focusing primarily on the requirements imposed by a tritium- based fuel cycle, thermal-hydraulic considerations, and magnet systems; and (c) materials considerations, including surface erosion, radiation effects, materials compatibility, and neutron- induced activation. The major conclusions of the paper are summarized in a final section where it is noted that research and development programs have been initiated to satisfy the technological require- ments associated with the realization of commercial fusion power. Additional references on technology and conceptual designs: Electric Power Research Institute. October l976. Tritium Inventory Considerations in Fusion Reactors - Topical Report. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI ER-278. General Atomic Company. December l976. Experimental Fusion Power Reactor Conceptual Design Study - Final Report. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI ER-289. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. September l976. Conceptual Engineering Design of a l-GJ Fast Discharging Homopolar Machine for the Reference Theta-Pinch Fusion Reactor. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI ER-246. Mathematical Sciences Northwest, Inc. February 1976. A Feasibility Study of a Linear Laser Heated Solenoid Fusion Reactor. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI ER-l7l. Miley, George. l976. Fusion Energy Conversion. La Grange Park, Illinois: American Nuclear Society. For a discussion of alternate fuel cycles see: McNally, J. Rand, Jr. April l972. Prospects for Alternate Fusion Fuel Cycles at High Temperatures. Oak Ridge: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. ORNL TM-3783. For a discussion of alternate end uses for fusion see: Electric Power Research Institute. March l977. The EPRI Asilomar Papers: On the Possibility of Advanced Fuel Fusion Reactors, Fusion-Fission Hybrid Breeders, Small Fusion Power Reactors. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI SR/ER-378.
44 Fusion Systems Corporation. September l976. Enhanced Energy Utilization from a Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion Reactor. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI ER-248. Miley, G. (ed.) September l975. Conference Proceedings: Effects of Cyclotron Emission of the Power Balance in Fusion Systems. Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute. EPRI SR-l6.
