The Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program Assessing 10 Years of Experience -- Special Report 264 (2002) / Chapter Skim
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Appendix E - Cost-Effectiveness of Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Strategies
Appendix E - Cost-Effectiveness of Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Strategies
Pages 275-419
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From page 275... ...
Comparisons of the cost effectiveness of the types of strategies eligible for CMAQ funding with the cost-effectiveness of strategies that have not been eligible for CMAQ funding, such as the construction of new highway capacity, roadway or other travel pricing schemes, new vehicle/fuel technology, and emission controls for nonmobile sources, were also made. The highway capacity, travel pricing, and selected (mainly transit-oriented)
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From page 276... ...
pollution under certain circumstances. Title 21, Section 149 of ISTEA stipulates in detail the types of strate gies that are eligible for CMAQ funding.1 These include the following: · Improvements to public transit service, including new and replace ment vehicles (but not operating costs that do not arise out of new or expanded service, nor transit-oriented private development)
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From page 277... ...
; · Trip reduction ordinances or programs to facilitate nonautomo bile travel or reduce the need for single-occupant vehicle travel, including programs or ordinances applicable to new shopping cen ters, special events, and other centers of vehicle activity; · Traffic flow improvements, such as signal improvements and freeway management systems (provided they can be demonstrated to improve air quality) , traveler information programs, and electronic toll/fare payment systems; · Fringe and corridor parking facilities serving transit or multi occupant vehicle use; · Peak-period or area-specific vehicle use restrictions; · Programs for provision of ridesharing services; · Construction or redesignation of facilities for exclusive use by nonmotorized vehicles or pedestrians, and bicycle storage/protective facilities; · Nonconstruction projects related to safe bicycle use, establish ment of bike/pedestrian coordinators, and public education programs; · Project planning or development activities that lead directly to construction of facilities or new services with air quality benefits (i.e., the projects themselves have air quality benefits)
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From page 278... ...
All analytic approaches and assumptions used to address key methodological issues are described, including the following: Parameters and considerations in compiling transportation and travel impact data; Emission criteria, including pollutants considered, baseline assumptions, computational assumptions and factors, weighting and summation, and emission discounting; and Cost and cost-effectiveness calculation procedures, detailing assumptions regarding capital versus operating costs, cost annual ization, public versus private costs, consumer versus manufacturer costs, societal and external costs, and transfer payments. · The Cost-Effectiveness Findings section is the most substantial section of the report, given its purpose of presenting and describing the nature and range of impacts for each strategy category and subcategory: Traffic flow improvements, including subcategories of traffic signalization, freeway management, and HOV lanes; Ridesharing programs, including general regional outreach and matching programs, vanpool and buspool programs, and park and-ride lots; Travel demand management, including regional or areawide approaches and employer trip reduction programs; Telecommute/telework programs, including employer-based, nonworksite, and nonwork approaches; Bicycle/pedestrian facilities and programs, either site-based or areawide; Transit improvements, including new shuttle or feeder services, new rail transit services or equipment, and conventional transit service improvements;
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From page 279... ...
Estimates of cost or emission reductions associated with CMAQ funding applications were avoided, by direction of the committee, since these data were earlier found to be variable in
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From page 280... ...
; · Emission reductions: change in emissions of HC [including volatile organic compounds (VOC) and reactive organic gases (ROG)
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From page 281... ...
Costs Annualized Public Costs Project Life:__30__ yrs Interest Rate: ___7__% CMAQ Non- Total Methodology/Assumptions: CMAQ Capital $ $ $ Assumes that project has benefits 250 days per Adm/Oper year. Total NA NA $16,125 Total Annualized $16,125/yr Public Cost: Annual Revenues: none Net Public Cost: $16,125/yr Annual Private Cost NA Total Net Cost $16,125/yr Figure E-1 Sample CMAQ project profile summary sheet.
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From page 282... ...
, and various National Cooperative Highway Research Program projects or special studies; · Formal evaluation studies of actual CMAQ transportation demand management (TDM) and other innovative project implementations; · Transportation and air quality model guides and applications test results; · Synthesis documents on transportation and air quality impacts; · A wide variety of published research papers and reports by indi viduals or university research departments; and · More fundamental research documents or guides on travel behav ior changes.
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From page 283... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 283 $)
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From page 284... ...
Maybe as important, steady and significant improvement of fuels and technology through this period, coupled with turnover in the light-duty vehicle fleet, resulted in major reductions in VOC and CO production. Changes in emis sion rates reflecting this transformation of the fleet mean that rela tionships between travel changes and emission impacts would be quite different if taken from a study done in the early 1990s as opposed to one done today.
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From page 285... ...
In this regard, and for its contribution to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) , NOx emissions were seen as critical.
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From page 286... ...
Since the ultimate measure of effective ness for the review was cost per ton of emissions reduced, lack of cost information made it impossible to compare the strategy with others. Findings from some studies that had solid and unique infor mation on travel (especially effects on congestion)
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From page 287... ...
1999. Methods to Find the Cost Effectiveness of Funding Air Quality Projects (for Evaluating Motor Vehicle Registration Fee Projects and CMAQ Projects)
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From page 288... ...
It is also important to note that a second paper was commissioned by the CMAQ committee, dealing with the effectiveness of non CMAQ-eligible emission control strategies, in particular, advances in vehicle technology and fuels (see Appendix F of this Special Report)
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From page 289... ...
circumstance for this paper. Transportation and Travel Impacts The primary way in which CMAQ-type strategies effect emission reductions is through changes in travel: either by reducing vehicle trips or travel (VMT)
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From page 290... ...
CO is also a regulated pollutant, but it has been largely controlled in most areas through technological advancements. Because CMAQ funds may have been expended for CO-specific strate gies (various traffic flow improvements)
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From page 291... ...
Federal engine and fuel standards have since greatly reduced these emissions, and these improvements are reflected in lower fleet emission rates for gasoline-powered vehicles. Thus, were one to use emission estimates from these earlier studies, compa rability concerns would arise in that the same travel change would probably elicit a greater absolute or percentage change in VOC emis sions than a study performed using current fleet emission factors.
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From page 292... ...
While CARB acknowledges that FHWA requests CO reduc tions for CMAQ projects, its own Motor Vehicle Fee program does not request CO information, since CO is seen as a localized and not a regional problem. Most of the CMAQ and Motor Vehicle Fee projects funded are primarily to reduce regional ozone, and they have little impact on localized CO hot spots.
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From page 293... ...
NA = not applicable. Source: Methods to Find the Cost-Effectiveness of Funding Air Quality Projects, California Air Resources Board, Aug.
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From page 294... ...
For strategies involving changes to elements of travel beyond sim ply vehicle trips and VMT, the CARB procedure provides additional guidance and factors as follows: · For signalization or other flow improvement strategies, emission reductions are primarily linked to changes in average speeds. Hence, emission factors are provided for different speed ranges, and guidance is provided to account for peak and off-peak travel VMT distribution.
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From page 295... ...
However, given its surrogate relationship with NOx, its importance in emission determinations can be approximated by assigning a higher weight to NOx emissions when computing a total. 2In certain strategies, emissions of some pollutants may actually increase while oth ers are reduced.
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From page 296... ...
For these reasons, the committee decided to apply the following weighting scheme in calculating emission reductions from CMAQ and comparative strategies: Total reduction = (VOC 1.0) + (NOx reduction 4.0)
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From page 297... ...
In contrast, strate gies that attempt to improve traffic flow conditions (such as signal management or freeway incident management systems) would be expected to have a fairly powerful (if not maximum)
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From page 298... ...
Strategies assumed to fit this pattern include New transit system elements or expansions, Vanpool programs, Ridesharing and travel demand management programs, Employer trip reduction programs, Telecommuting/telework programs, Park-and-ride lots serving bus transit or as rideshare staging locations, Bike/pedestrian facilities, and Pricing (subsidies or fees)
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From page 299... ...
This result raises some interesting philosophical questions to challenge the inherent economic logic present in discounting bene fits, specifically as to whether near-term rewards are always superior to long-term rewards. It suggests, for example, that traffic flow improvements, which deliver fairly immediate benefits, are more
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From page 300... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 300 n Year Benefits Stream Life Rate Benefit Service Discount Decreasing 0 Year n Year Life Benefits Rate Stream Service 0 Discount Constant Benefit Year n Year e Benefits Life Rat Stream Service Discount Increasing 0 Benefit Year
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From page 301... ...
Because of these concerns, the appropriateness of simply casting strategies into one of the above three categories was examined closely. For some strategies, such as HOV lanes, where it was not clear that the benefits would increase or decrease over time, it was assumed that the benefit stream would be constant.
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From page 302... ...
, Wang also raised issues with the following types of adjustments to emissions, which were considered but not used as a factor in this assessment of CMAQ strategies: · Emissions in attainment versus nonattainment areas: Wang indi cates that certain emission studies attempt to control for whether the emission reductions actually occur in air quality nonattainment
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From page 303... ...
This approach has been followed for CMAQ strategies, because all the estimates furnished from the literature are on an annual basis. Costs and Cost-Effectiveness Types of Costs Considered and Not Considered Costs included in this evaluation of CMAQ strategies have been limited to the following categories: · Annualized capital costs: These include the capital costs to con struct and implement the project, reduced to an average annual dol lar value based on service life and the presumed social rate of inter est (generally between 5 and 7 percent)
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From page 304... ...
The table below shows typical project lifetimes for CMAQ-type strategies for use in cost annualization along with the respective CRFs. Project Lifetimes for Use in Cost Annualization and Capital Recovery Factors CRFs at Indicated Interest Rate Service Lifespan Types of Strategies or Facilities 5% 6% 7% 12 years Existing transit service improvements 0.538 (2 years)
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From page 305... ...
For example, an employer implementing a trip reduction program might institute a charge for employee parking. Whereas the parking fee would furnish revenues back to the employer that could be used to defray other costs of the program (or even to provide transit subsidies to other employees)
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From page 306... ...
The CMAQ committee decided not to extend the current analysis to include these types of costs, given uncertainties in their valuation and gen eral absence in the empirical literature. Constant Dollars All dollar costs for projects were converted to a 2000 base by using a Consumer Price Index from the U.S.
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From page 307... ...
or hours of delay associated with congestion measures, or both · Emission impacts Daily reduction in emissions by pollutant (HC, NOx, CO, and PM10) Weighted sum of daily tons of emissions reduced for all pollu tants Year or period for which emissions have been calculated · Cost-effectiveness Service lifetime of strategy Assumed trend in emission benefits over time Compound interest rate used for annualization of costs and discounting of emission benefits Average annual (discounted)
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From page 308... ...
From this information the reader can assess the impor tance of the weighting assumption on the overall and relative per formance of each strategy group. Traffic Flow Improvements Traffic flow improvements reduce emissions not through reduction of vehicular travel demand, but through improved efficiency that effectively increases capacity and thus allows vehicles to travel more smoothly and at higher speeds.
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From page 309... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 309 20.8 52.8 4.1 5.6 111.4 22.3 6.8 12.6 133.9 47.3 49.6 34.4 13.5 30.0 8.1 68.0 9.4 1.1 25.4 5.6 Median 1:8:0:0 72.8 8.9 5.0 High 672.6 214.3 47.7 37.9 18.0 95.4 189.5 258.5 64.7 30.0 20.2 288.1 16.6 268.4 26.9 4,505 1,151 Weights 6.0 1.3 8.5 0.7 2.7 4.4 1.3 3.2 7.3 2.3 6.8 4.6 2.1 Low 30.0 5.5 3.4 2.3 1.1 0.4 0.4 35.2 4.5 240.9 316.2 18.5 30.4 127.5 34.1 56.9 742.3 206.6 214.7 208.0 64.6 149.8 62.3 355.7 53.0 125.4 27.9 Schemes Median 1:1:0:0 296.5 732.1 589.4 45.3 253.2 226.1 90.8 473.8 893.3 336.0 149.8 147.5 97.1 10.2 132.3 Weighting High 21,643 4,256 1,226 1,422 1,086 Weights 5.4 5.8 Low 43.1 3.1 14.7 29.3 5.8 14.2 34.8 11.2 30.8 22.7 9.9 149.8 43.2 16.8 9.0 3.5 2.4 2.2 Alternative and 20.1 7.4 102.4 176.2 10.5 43.0 12.5 22.7 251.8 84.1 87.5 66.4 24.6 56.2 16.1 126.4 17.8 1.9 46.6 10.3 Median (1:4) 1:4:0:0 dollars)
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From page 310... ...
However, should condi tions improve to the extent that traffic flows at speeds exceeding 35 mph, emissions then proceed to increase steadily with speed. A final issue concerning flow improvements is their effect of divert ing traffic from other facilities or modes.
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From page 311... ...
Speed Correction Factors for Freeways by Average Speed (mph) for Tier 1 Normal Emitting Vehicles 3.5 3 VOCs CO 2.5 NOx Factor 2 Correction 1.5 Speed 1 0.5 0 7.1 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 Average Speed (mph)
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From page 312... ...
Traffic Signalization Strategies Table E-Annex-1 contains five examples of traffic signalization projects. They range in cost from $6,300 to more than $2 million per year and have total annual emission reductions of between 0.8 and 89.6 tons.
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From page 313... ...
Supplemental Traffic Flow Information Because many of the strategies presented above did not have signifi cant information on their traffic and congestion management bene fits, for which potentially important travel time savings benefits might be presumed, the supplemental table below contains a num ber of examples of traffic signalization projects, incident manage ment systems, and ramp-metering systems for which travel impacts were provided. These impacts include changes in speed, delay and travel time, and in some cases emission reductions.
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From page 314... ...
HOV Lanes HOV lanes achieve their emission benefits largely in the same way as do other flow improvements, by improving flow conditions and raising average speed for vehicles traveling on congested facilities. What differentiates HOV lanes is that they also encourage change in
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From page 315... ...
If the HOV lane is "added" to the existing system, then it provides less of a travel time incentive to potential HOV users but provides an across-the board improvement to all travelers because of the increase in physi cal capacity. Speeds may be sufficiently improved under these con ditions that either NOx emissions rise or new vehicle trips are drawn to the facility from other routes or modes.
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From page 316... ...
There are "programmatic" approaches, consisting mainly of areawide programs that provide information and assistance in match ing potential poolers. Of course, individual employers may institute ridesharing programs, although this is often more in the context of a broader employer trip reduction program (discussed later)
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From page 317... ...
. Hence, the service life is 1 year and both benefit and cost discounting are inapplicable.
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From page 318... ...
Most of the better studies, including all of those reported here, make allowance for this automobile access element. Travel Demand Management TDM has come to mean a variety of actions that are typically aimed at commute travel.
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From page 319... ...
Employer-Based TDM The employer-based trip reduction (ETR) program has attracted con siderable scrutiny, given the political issues raised by California's Regulation XV program and the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments' Employee Commute Options (ECO)
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From page 320... ...
, and from 2,100 to 9,300 annual tons of emissions reduced. The cost-effectiveness demon strated in the seven examples ranges from $5,700 per ton (Houston ECO program with $50 per employee assumption)
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From page 321... ...
. Emission reductions from telecommute/telework strategies derive from the ability of the participating individual to forgo travel to a for mal work site 1 or more days per week.
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From page 322... ...
Table E-Annex-10 lists 14 examples of these programs, taken from a fairly wide range of source studies. Travel and emission benefits are assumed to follow an increasing trend over time for discounting purposes, because of the adaptive nature of development and aware ness over time.
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From page 323... ...
. Transit-related strategies account for 28.3 percent of CMAQ obligations between 1992 and 1999, the single largest obligation category after traffic flow improvements (33.1 percent)
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From page 324... ...
. New Vehicles or Capital System Expansion As noted above, this may be the single biggest expenditure category among CMAQ projects (24.7 percent if conventional fuel vehicles and new capital systems/vehicles are included)
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From page 325... ...
Conventional Service Improvements Table E-Annex-13 presents 10 examples of conventional transit ser vice improvements, consisting largely of improved frequency of fixed-route bus service, though route restructuring and traveler information are also included. The service improvements range in effectiveness from $16,700 per ton (DVRPC suburban bus service improvements)
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From page 326... ...
Shown in the table for 1996 and-later buses are NOx emission rates for buses in typical "urban" service, with an assumed average speed of 15 mph, and in "com muter" service, with a higher average speed of 45 mph. Emission rates are shown for engines produced under two standards: 4.0 g/bhp hr and 2.0 g/bhp-hr.
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From page 327... ...
The service life of urban transit buses is 12 to 15 years, and they generally are used about 40,000 miles per year. At a current cost of $250,000 per bus, replacement of a pre-1984 bus with one manufac tured after 1994 would result in an emission savings of between 0.7 and 2.0 tons per year, against an annualized cost of about $27,500 (12 years at 5 percent)
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From page 328... ...
Again, there is quite a range of cost and effectiveness among the examples, due both to scale and type of technology, as well as to whether emission reductions were based on differences in emission rates only or included the effect of travel mode shifts. The primary advantage of switching to alternative fuels (particularly CNG)
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From page 329... ...
The range of effectiveness in reducing emissions is between 0.1 and 22.5 tons per year, while cost-effectiveness ranges from $32,800 to $212,300 per ton, with the two best-performing examples- MTDB Routes 901 and 933/934 -- having substantial ridership and vehicle trip reductions in comparison with the other two cases. As a group, the 11 examples have a median annual emission reduc tion of 2.8 tons, a cost of $219,000, and a median cost-effectiveness of $126,400 per ton.
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From page 330... ...
show a cost-effectiveness of $478,500, while methanol reduces NOx at $64,300 per ton, CNG reduces at $57,200 per ton, and hybrid-electric at $86,900 per ton. From the standpoint of CMAQ funding, the full cost comparisons seem to be more appropriate and, hence, suggest that the alternative-fuel buses are more cost-effective, and certainly much more aggressive at reducing NOx emissions, than the diesel.
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From page 331... ...
by making up the difference in cost between the conventional and the alternative-fuel vehicle. This program is estimated to reduce 4.4 tons per year (on the basis of differential emission rates only, not VMT)
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From page 332... ...
Non-CMAQ Strategies: Pricing Although pricing strategies are not explicitly named as eligible for CMAQ funding, and no funding obligations are shown for them through 1999, under certain circumstances strategies with pricing characteristics might actually be eligible for CMAQ funding. Examples would include start-up subsidies for transit or vanpooling services or for supporting employer trip reduction programs (including incentives, according to the CMAQ guidance)
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From page 333... ...
Cost-effectiveness results in the overall category range from a low of $800 per ton to $471,000 per ton, with a median of $46,600. The wide range of differences in impacts is due to several factors, though the service life issue is not among them.
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From page 334... ...
In practice, most of these strategies would raise enough revenue from the fees to cover their direct costs and would operate at close to zero cost per ton, or would generate net revenue that could be used for subsidies or service improvements to further enhance the effect of the base strategy. As with the subsidy strategies, each of these examples is assumed to have a service life of only 1 year, which likely diminishes an increasing long-term benefit stream.
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From page 335... ...
The big issue, therefore, in evaluating the effectiveness of new high way capacity as an air quality measure concerns the long term. A substantial body of evidence shows that new highway capacity is fairly rapidly met with new demand, since by its very nature, it enhances accessibility to areas within its service envelope.8 Unfortunately, the review was unable to identify any studies that comprehensively investigated the relationship between highway investment, subsequent land use and travel effects, and emissions and costs.
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From page 336... ...
long-range transportation plan. These included major regional investments in light rail transit, new (auto mated)
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From page 337... ...
A brief description of the strategies that were tested is as follows: · No build: All new freeways, expressways, HOV lanes, and transit projects listed in SACOG's 1993 long-range plan (LRP) and in the 2015 network were removed.
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From page 338... ...
The following are the key findings: · The highway capacity improvement strategies generally account for the greatest travel delay savings but the poorest emissions of all the strategies. The fully automated freeways increase emissions over the no-build case by 40 to 220 tons per day, mainly as a result of sig nificant increases in vehicle trips and VMT, as well as higher oper ating speeds (60 to 80 mph)
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From page 339... ...
. centers build HOV HOV partial automated and HOV LRT no vehicle = E-2 weights Report automation automation and centers and mph)
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From page 340... ...
The general lessons from this work are that major highway capac ity expansions may provide congestion relief but most probably will not result in emission reductions over the long run. HOV and transit can have positive effects on both emissions and travel delay, but those effects are marginal unless supported with pricing and land use strategies.
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From page 341... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 341 $5.8 $1.9 $1.8 $16.0 $7.4 $1.2 tenance Main $49.4 $10.3 $0.8 & Rideshare pection s $89.0 $10.5 $5.2 Fees nI and Regional median)
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From page 342... ...
. Importance of Pollutant Weighting Assumptions The determination of strategy performance is, of course, dependent on the importance of the weights assigned to the various pollutants when computing total emission reductions.
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From page 343... ...
With a weighting ratio that values NOx emissions 4 times greater than HC, clearly strategies that have a comparative advantage in reducing NOx are going to perform much better than those that do not. To see how sensitive the study conclusions about comparative effectiveness of strategies are, each of the strategy examples was also evaluated on the basis of alternative weighting schemes that test the importance of the NOx weighting assumptions in the standard case.
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From page 344... ...
The conventional transit service improvements category becomes slightly more attractive under the high (1:8) NOx weight ing, rising from 10th position to 9th.
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From page 345... ...
Traffic signalization, on the other hand, looks better when NOx is de-emphasized, since these strategies were frequently observed to increase NOx emissions. These strategies improve from 8th to 6th in the rankings when the 1:1 weight ratio is used and fall from 8th to 10th when the 1:8 weight ratio is used.
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From page 346... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 346 + 1 2 1 1 1 9 9 9 3 2 6 4 94 53 $70,000 11 2 2 60,000$ $69,999 1 2 1 $50,000 $59,999 $) Level 1 1 1 1 2000 $40,000 $49,999 (in Ton per 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8445 6334 Cost $30,000 $39,999 Cost-Effectiveness and 2 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 15 11 $20,000 $29,999 Category 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 18 13 Project $10,000 $19,999 by 2 2 3 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 5 5 3 36 26 Examples $10,000 < Project of program Number reduction improvements improvements maintenance discounts buses fees E-4 management TDM trip programs and and and (139)
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From page 347... ...
. Other such examples are employer trip reduction (3 of 7 cases under $20,000, 1 case over $70,000)
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From page 348... ...
To this end, Table E-5 illustrates the percentage alloca tion of CMAQ funds across the various types of strategies explored in this paper, from program inception in FY 1992 through FY 1999, the most recent year for which this information is available. The dis tribution of funding obligations illustrates the following major pat terns in the types of projects that have been implemented: · Traffic flow improvements: most heavily funded at 33.1 percent of all allocations and delivering emission reductions at a group aver age of $85,400 per ton.
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From page 349... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 349 )
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0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 350 Percent 80 x 843 107 6,475 7,968 1,820 2,045 3,918 NA NA NA NA 45,317 56,646 Funding Median of Weighting x (%) HC:NO on 28.3 7.4 12.0 7.4 1.5 20.6 12.7 3.1 0.6 4.2 2.8 0.4 0.9 1.5 5.4 80.0 100.0 Obligations Based 19921999 FY CMAQ Results $)
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From page 351... ...
The major missing strategy groups are · Traffic flow improvements related to intersection improvements, traveler information systems, and so forth, accounting for 11.9 per cent of all funds allocated; · STP/CMAQ allocations, accounting for 5.4 percent of all funds allocated; and · Other, including rail freight, paving and sweeping, and miscella neous other, accounting for 2.8 percent of all allocations. These missing categories are therefore not reflected in the overall program estimate, which is shown at the bottom of Table E-5 as approximately $56,600 per ton of emissions reduced.
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From page 352... ...
This shortcoming extends to CMAQ proposals and even postimplementa tion evaluation studies. As a prime example, many studies dealing with traffic flow enhance ments raised questions in review as to whether they would be effec tive overall in reducing emissions, given concerns about NOx/speed relationships, traffic diversions, or the effects of increasing traffic lev els over time.
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From page 353... ...
In other words, about half of all examples studied delivered emission reductions for under $30,000 per ton. Why, then, do 35 percent of all projects have costs of over $70,000 per ton, with many of these substantially over $70,000 per ton?
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From page 354... ...
Tightening application requirements for CMAQ projects to demonstrate appropriate returns in achieving emission reductions that are commensurate with the desired funding and the needs of the particular area might be one way of achieving improved program per formance. However, not only would this place increased review responsibility on the funding agency, it would also be viewed as an unacceptable break with the historic flexibility ethic of the program.
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From page 355... ...
Preliminary Assessment. In Transportation Research Record 1641, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp.
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From page 356... ...
152158. travel and emission impacts.
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From page 357... ...
Quality Projects for of many popular Evaluating Motor CMAQ-type projects. Vehicle Registration Fee and CMAQ Projects (1999 edi tion)
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From page 358... ...
report, Los Angeles under MTA's TDM County Metropolitan Program in Los Transportation Angeles County. Authority, April.
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From page 359... ...
Also studied May. transit/carpool HOV lanes, concluding that with 20-minute time savings, could reduce regional VMT by 1%.
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From page 360... ...
CMAQ evaluation study Transit Not used. Station Renovations that addresses transit improvements.
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From page 361... ...
Impact of Parking dence on impact of Policy Measures on parking policy (avail Travel Demand. ability, location, price)
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From page 362... ...
1990 Giuliano, G., et al. Examines extent to which HOV lanes.
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From page 363... ...
Summary Reviews project impacts All CMAQ Impact estimates Review of Costs and in six different CMAQ strategies. directly used.
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From page 364... ...
1999 Intelligent Summarizes empirical Traffic flow Examples of incident Transportation results from field oper- improvements. management Systems Benefits -- ations of deployed sys- projects used in 1999 Update.
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From page 365... ...
1996 Johnston, R A., and Statistics presented to HOV lanes.
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From page 366... ...
Nov. ing emission impacts of HOV lanes.
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From page 367... ...
Commuter Railroad predict increase in rail improvements. Stations and Station ridership if parking Parking Impact capacity is added to Evaluation Study.
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From page 368... ...
A Toolbox Some impact information Traffic flow Examples of signal for Alleviating Traffic on TSM & TDM strate- improvements, ization and ramp Congestion and gies for congestion TDM, transit, metering projects Enhancing Mobility. relief.
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From page 369... ...
1997 NCHRP Report 394: Focuses on importance of Traffic flow Reference only. Improving input data to emission improvements.
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From page 370... ...
Control Measures. In Results taken from Transportation actual before-and-after Research Record studies.
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From page 371... ...
Reducing Presents estimates of Conventional Used for comparison Emissions from incremental cost of and purposes; limited Transit Buses. gaining NOx and PM alternative- by incremental Regional Science emission reductions fuel transit cost approach.
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From page 372... ...
1992 Texas Transportation Examines historical trends HOV lanes. Not used.
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From page 373... ...
1997 Texas Transportation Provides assessment of HOV lanes. Used example of Katy Institute.
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From page 374... ...
lyze CMAQ projects. Examples focus on traffic flow improve ments and park-and ride.
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From page 375... ...
rail transit investment assessment. University of and demand manage California Trans- ment, contrasts with portation Center.
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From page 376... ...
HOV way HOV lanes across Lanes -- Are They North America. Effective?
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From page 377... ...
Dean. ologies for estimating Potential of regional VMT, then Transportation plays with assump Vouchers to Reduce tions about how Vehicle Miles of voucher might work in Travel.
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From page 378... ...
improvements in Philadelphia CBD Mean NA 38,945 NA NA 1.6 0.056 0.048 Median NA 38,945 NA NA 1.6 0.035 0.017 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 379... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 379 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 379 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Cost/ Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 380... ...
Mean NA 15,372 NA 62,560 4.2 0.314 0.207 1.699 Median NA 15,372 NA 62,560 4.2 0.288 0.101 0.913 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 381... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 381 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 381 Cost-Effectiveness Ann. Discount Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Cost/ Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years)
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From page 382... ...
Mean 22,510 379,850 -8,000 NA 0.260 0.228 0.272 Median 22,510 379,850 -8,000 NA 0.260 0.066 0.004 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 383... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 383 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 383 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Cost/ Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 384... ...
sharing program Mean 6,407 55,935 5,539 NA NA 0.081 0.087 0.817 Median 623 16,254 5,539 NA NA 0.016 0.016 0.817 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 385... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 385 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 385 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Cost/ Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 386... ...
(1998) Mean 167 8,397 NA NA NA 0.025 0.050 NA Median 66 3,704 NA NA NA 0.003 0.005 NA Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership.
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From page 387... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 387 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 387 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Cost/ Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 388... ...
46,108 (50) NA NA 0.023 0.056 0.330 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership.
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From page 389... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 389 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 389 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Cost/ Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 390... ...
Mean 568 15,068 38,566 NA NA 0.054 0.059 0.149 Median 277 8,684 38,566 NA NA 0.042 0.047 0.149 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 391... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 391 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Cost/ Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 392... ...
meet APO targets in PA portion of Philadelphia Mean 268,279 2,824,941 25,953 NA NA 3.102 3.573 18.220 Median 334,480 2,675,840 25,800 NA NA 2.820 2.830 18.220 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 393... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 393 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 393 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Cost/ Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 394... ...
NA NA 0.142 0.152 3.309 Median 8 1,562 (16,395) NA NA 0.001 0.002 3.309 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership.
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From page 395... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 395 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Cost/ Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 396... ...
lockers (1998) Pansing Santa Clarita bike 18 101 NA NA NA 0.0002 0.0002 et al.
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From page 397... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 397 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Cost/ Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 398... ...
NA NA 0.011 0.013 1.388 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 399... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 399 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 399 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Cost/ Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 400... ...
van program Michael Baker NJ Transit 4,070 57,653 11,016 NA NA 0.057 0.074 (1997) WHEELS program Mean 541 14,361 7,931 NA NA 0.011 0.018 0.639 Median 25 336 7,931 NA NA 0.001 0.001 0.639 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership.
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From page 401... ...
; annual benefits = weighted emissions days/year BDF; annual costs = annualized capital costs plus applicable operating, administrative, and private costs.
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From page 402... ...
Parsons Metra North 2,267 67,500 4,306 NA NA 0.126 0.174 Brinckerhoff Central (1999) commuter rail Mean 31,956 462,312 47,004 NA NA 0.453 0.613 0.009 Median 2,656 100,530 5,410 NA NA 0.099 0.137 0.009 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership.
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From page 403... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 403 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 403 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Discount Benefits Annual Cost/ Emission Life Benefits Rate (tons/ Costs Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend (%)
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From page 404... ...
service improvements DVRPC Reduce city transit 4,579 52,512 5,343 NA NA 0.094 0.089 0.410 (1994) headways by 10% Mean 13,086 204,657 20,603 NA NA 0.181 0.239 0.422 Median 4,579 52,512 6,161 NA NA 0.060 0.077 0.422 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership.
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From page 405... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 405 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Discount (tons/ Costs Cost/Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend Rate (%)
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From page 406... ...
rail stations Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 407... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 407 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 407 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Discount (tons/ Costs Cost/Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend Rate (%)
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From page 408... ...
Foundation CNG bus replacement Mean 1,155 7,270 NA NA NA 0.009 0.019 0.375 Median 1,122 429 NA NA NA 0.003 0.003 0.375 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = importance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study estimate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 409... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 409 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Discount (tons/ Costs Cost/Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend Rate (%)
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From page 410... ...
with post-1996 buses Replace pre-1991 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA with post-1996 buses NA Mean NA NA NA NA NA 0.0001 0.0021 NA Median NA NA NA NA NA 0.0001 0.0022 NA Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 411... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 411 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Discount (tons/ Costs Cost/Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend Rate (%)
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From page 412... ...
vehicles Hagler Douglas County, GA, NA NA NA NA NA 0.011 0.0080 Bailly alternative fuels (1999) refueling station Mean NA NA NA NA NA 0.007 0.006 NA Median NA NA NA NA NA 0.007 0.006 NA Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership.
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From page 413... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 413 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 413 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Discount (tons/ Costs Cost/Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend Rate (%)
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From page 414... ...
simulation mode with pressure test Mean NA NA NA NA NA 7.55 3.53 NA Median NA NA NA NA NA 7.56 4.20 NA Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 415... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 415 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 415 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Discount (tons/ Costs Cost/Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend Rate (%)
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From page 416... ...
Transitcheck Mean 91,654 1,220,559 64,885 NA NA 1.245 1.583 0.888 Median 10,312 126,308 53,900 NA NA 0.158 0.202 0.888 Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 417... ...
; annual benefits = weighted emissions days/year BDF; annual costs = annualized capital costs plus applicable operating, administrative, and private costs.
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From page 418... ...
management Mean 65,061 907,438 50,880 NA NA 0.908 1.170 NA Median 37,300 647,100 37,200 NA NA 0.589 0.817 NA Travel term definitions: VTR = vehicle trip reduction; VMTR = vehicle miles of travel reduced; transit riders = increase in daily transit ridership. Emission term definitions: total emissions = weighted sum of HC, NOx, CO, and PM10; emission weights = impor tance weights representing value of individual pollutants; emission year = time period for which source study esti mate applies; benefits trend indicates whether emissions are decreasing, increasing, or constant over project life.
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From page 419... ...
0660-11/Appendix E 6/12/02 4:35 PM Page 419 Cost-Effectiveness of CMAQ Strategies 419 Cost-Effectiveness Annual Benefits Annual Emission Life Benefits Discount (tons/ Costs Cost/Ton PM10 Total "Year" (years) Trend Rate (%)
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Key Terms
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