Materials and Man's Needs Materials Science and Engineering -- Volume III, The Institutional Framework for Materials Science and Engineering (1975) / Chapter Skim
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Materials in Industry
Materials in Industry
Pages 7-95
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From page 7... ...
The second point is that, unlike the leading industries (except for chemicals, in which the plastics industry would be included) , these materials-producing industries essentially fund their own R&D and receive little federal R&D support.
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Industry Structure: A large part of the metals industry is concentrated, i.e. is characterized by large vertically integrated companies which are able to optimize both their raw materials sources and their markets.
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7-9 TABLE 7.2 U.S. Demand for Selected Primary Metals, 1970 and 1985*
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7-10 TABLE 7.3 U.S. Imports by Source and as Percent of Apparent Consumption, 1970 Metal Ferrous: Iron Manganese Chromium Vanadium Nickel Molybdenum Tungsten Nonferrous: Aluminum Copper Zinc Lead Magnesium*
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From page 11... ...
7-11 TABLE 7.4 Byproduct Relationships for Selected Metals, 1970 Less Than 100 Percent of Total Ore 100 Percent of Total Output Output Iron Cobalt Manganese Gold Copper Silver Aluminum Gallium Copper Arsenic Selenium Palladium Platinum Rhenium Tellurium Nickel Gold Zinc Silver Iron Molybdenum Lead Lead Bismuth Antimony Gold Zinc Copper Silver Manganese Tellurium Zinc Cadmium Indium Lead Gold Germanium Thallium Silver Mercury Manganese Copper Gallium
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From page 12... ...
in 1970 totaled 9.2 million tons of charge, equivalent to about 1.9 million tons of smelter product; four companies constituted nearly 80% of the capacity. Refinery capacity totaled 2.7 million tons of which 89% was electrolytic refining capacity and 11% was firerefining (including Lake copper)
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From page 13... ...
. The combined national capacity of about 70 super-shredders and small-to-medium sized shredders in operation in 1968 was described as over 6 million tons, about squalling the tonnage of cars junked that year.
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7-15 TABLE 7.5 Recovery of Metals from Scrap as Related to Total Consumption, 1970 (Thousand Short Tons) Secondary Total - percent Metal Recovery Consumption B' Aluminum 781 4~519 17 Copper 1,248 2,779 45 Iron 44,700 116,900 38 Lead 597 1,360 44 Zinc 260 1,572 17
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From page 16... ...
Estimated capital investment for air- and waterpollution controls required of the copper industry between 1972 and 1976 is expected to total $300 million to $690 million, with a most likely estimate of $340 million. Annual costs are estimated to increase from $6 million in 1972 to $95 million in 1976.
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From page 17... ...
In the following, attention is given to some of the major categories of materials involved in order to illustrate the principal features of the industry. The categories are ceramics, construction materials, fertilizer minerals, and a selection of the other major nonmetallic materials.
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From page 18... ...
* Short Tons Supplies Domestic Imports Primary for Use Uses Including Government Stockpiling, Industry Stocks, and Exports Asbestos 132,000 675,000 807,000 Clays 55,000,000 55,000 55,055,000 Corundum 0 0 2,000 Diatomite 537,000 537 537,537 Feldspar 712,000 2,490 714,490 Garnet 18,325 153 18,478 Graphite *
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economy include asbestos, barium, boron, bromine, calcium, corundum, diamonds, diatomite, emery, feldspar, fluorine, garnet, graphite, gypsum, kyanite, lithium, mica, perlite, pumice, quartz, sodium, strontium, sulfur, talc, soapstone, pyrophyllite, and vermiculite. Asbestos demand is expected to increase domestically at an annual rate of 2.7 to 3.5% over the next few years.
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From page 26... ...
Diatomite demand is expected to increase domestically at an annual growth rate of about 5%, and can be met by increasing production from existing open~pit operations in the Western States. In 1970, industrial and
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From page 27... ...
Garnet demand is forecast to increase domestically at an annual rate of 2.1% for abrasive quality and 4.7% for sandblast quality. The increased needs are expected to be met by expanded domestic production.
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From page 28... ...
The value of crude perlite sold and used to make expanded material in 1970 was $4.9 million; the value of expanded perlite sold and used by 89 plants in 33 states was nearly $25 million. Natural quartz crystal demand is predicted to increase domestically at a maximum annual growth rate of 0.25%.
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From page 29... ...
New soda ash production facilities are dependent entirely on natural sodium carbonate minerals rather than salt. Some Solvay plants have been ordered to close because their effluent could not meet new standards set by environmental protection authorities.
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Plastics Industry In all, 25 companies operate 52 For the past twenty years, plastics production has been growing at an annual rate of between 10% and 15%. The 1969 production total was about 10 million tons, which is comparable with the nonferrous metals.
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Ft. 1Q7 Synthetic Polymers 400 710 Plastics 260 500 Elastomers 80 110 Fibers 60 100 Steel and Nonferrous Metals 424 574 Steel 370 500 Aluminum 40 50 Zinc 6 7 Copper 4.5 4.7 Magnesium 2 3 Lead 1.5 1.6 1973 (Cu.
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o us c)
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7-33 TABLE 7.10 Percentage Raw Material Make-up of Key Plastics Ethylene Propylene Polyethylene 100 Polypropylene -- 100 Polystyrene 27 Benzene Chlorine __ 73 __ Cellulose Other __ Phenolic -- -- 70 -- -- 30b Epoxy -- 37 44 -- -- tic PVC 43 -- -- 57 -- -Cellulosea 12 a Cellulose triacetate assumed for calculations, for cellophane. b Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen c Oxygen.
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From page 35... ...
Injection molding of thermostats Matched die molding of glass reinforced plastics Hand lay-up of glass-reinforced plastics followed by heat curing
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From page 36... ...
7-36 TABLE 7.12 Materials Cycle for Plastics Industry Air Salt -- - ~ Electrolysi Cracking Alkylation Petroleums ~ Reforming Distillation Pyrolysis Pyrolysis Is - ~ Polymerization Reclamation ~ Regrinding ~ Fabrication it' ,~ ,/ Fuel or Filler ~ Disposal-< - Consumer Product
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From page 37... ...
In its utilization of technical manpower, the plastics industry has traditionally employed the following professionals in the role of materials scientists and engineers:
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From page 38... ...
for polyethylene. It appears unlikely at the present time that, in the absence of legislation based on ecological considerations or a dramatic change in price or availability of petroleum, the plastics industry will expand the use of cellulose derivatives, cellophane film, and chemically-treated wood.
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From page 39... ...
The order in which they are discussed -- electronics, electric lamps, containers, automobiles, and construction -- corresponds both to an increasing scale of the product involved, and to a shift of emphasis from electrical to mechanical properties in designing materials for the product. Electronics Industry Illustration of the Role of Materials Science and Engineering Even be.
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From page 40... ...
Engineering demands to make semiconductor devices operate at higher and higher frequencies stimulated work on materials processes that would provide the smaller and smaller geometries that were required. Following original work of Fuller at the Bell Telephone Laboratories and Dunlap at General Electric, the Bell Telephone Laboratories published in early 1956 descriptions of both germanium and silicon transistors made by diffusion techniques.
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From page 41... ...
For instance, the extended study of semiconductor crystals has increased understanding of the mechanical behavior of structural materials; dislocations were first seen in semiconductor materials, and much of our direct knowledge of defects in solids was obtained initially from studying these materials. The creation of dislocation-free crystals was of great significance for the scientist and engineer working with nonelectronic materials.
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From page 42... ...
It is interesting to note that the power and special purpose tubes, which are not as easily replaced by semiconductor devices or integrated circuits, still maintain an upward trend. For the TV picture-tube curve, the unusual shape arises largely from the superposition of two curves -- black and white TV picture tubes and color TV picture tubes.
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From page 43... ...
1 000 900 800 700 Oh or ¢ J J o c, 600 o z 500 J 400 TV P ICTURE TUBES SEM ICONDUCTOR DEVICES _ I N TEGRATED Cl RCUITS PACKAGES _~ \ / \ a/ \/ CAPACITORS / / X RESI STORS I ,/\, 1 POWER AND SPECI AL / ~ >A / PURPOSE TUBES ~~ 200 100 o TRANSFORMERS /4 ~ _ _ RELAYS CONNECTORS / ~ RECEIVING TUBES / ~—MONOLITHIC INTEGRATED CIRCUITS L.C.
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From page 44... ...
As in the previous figure, the most distinctive behavior is exhibited by integrated circuits; assuming that this sector branches off from the parent semiconductor devices in 1965, the equivalent per-unit value declined by 1970 to less than onetenth that of 1960. Even the semiconductor devices, which have a history of continuous decline in unit-value over the whole decade, still have a per-unit value in 1970 of 26% compared with the value in 1960.
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From page 46... ...
The applications for individual semiconductor devices and integrated circuits are increasingly requiring improvement in the economics of materials usage as well as in performance and reliability. To reduce overall process costs in integrated circuits, the trend is toward 3-inch or larger diameter starting crystals.
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From page 47... ...
The devices in this area include infrared detectors, electroluminescent devices, electron-emission devices, thermoelectric devices, microwave devices, high-power laser windows, and solar cells. The following paragraphs outline some of the key materials features involved in such solid-state products.
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From page 48... ...
Thus, while silicon transistors and trapped-plasma-avalanche-transit-time (TRAPPAT) oscillators can operate effectively up to about 4 GHz, gallium arsenide devices take over -- on the basis of noise, power, bandwidth, and efficiency -- up to approximately 30 GHz (millimeter waves)
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From page 49... ...
and the region around 10.6 microns of the several alkali halides, II-VI and III-V compound semiconductors, germanium, and three commercially available infrared materials explored as window materials; monocrystalline gallium arsenide with resistivities above 104 ohm-cm looks especially promising. Solar-cell conversion is almost unique among power-generation processes in not causing thermal, gaseous, or particle pollution; consequently, interest in terrestrial application is strong.
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From page 50... ...
Thus not enough is known about the theoretical and practical limits of parameters like minority and majority carrier lifetimes as a function of impurity content. Likewise, continued research effort is required on the potentially useful class of amorphous semiconductor materials; without basic understanding of their behavior, device work is likely to be premature and wasteful.
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From page 51... ...
For high-power laser windows, the solution of the failure problem seems to lie in gallium arsenide developments, although this is sufficiently uncertain of success that it should be backed up by exploratory research on other materials. For solar cells, improvements in resistivity and lifetime of the starting silicon are essential.
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From page 52... ...
Electric Lamp Industry The devices by which electrical energy is converted into light originated with the carbon-arc lamp. The more convenient and more broadly applicable method of illumination created by Edison's invention of the carbon filament or incandescent lamp in the 19th century rapidly transformed domestic and public lighting away from the earlier gas lamps.
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From page 53... ...
($ millions) Incandescent Lamps 1480 264 Automotive Lamps 602 44 Fluorescent Lamps 254 165 High-Intensity Discharge Lamps 6 37 Photoflash Lamps 1452 105 The overall growth rate of the lamp industry is approximately 4% per year The total employment is 40,000 - 50,000 .
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From page 54... ...
7-54 TABLE 7.14 Materials Consumption Estimate for U.S. Lamp Industry, 1969 Volume Value Material (thousand lbs.)
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From page 55... ...
It is obvious from the high-technology content of electric lamps, and particularly from the great importance of the relevant materials, that materials scientists and engineers are key people in this field. There are no specific statistical figures available, but an approximate estimate is that there are 300-500 professionally trained people engaged in work closely related to materials technology in the U.S.
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From page 56... ...
Photoflash lamps represent the only important illumination device involving a chemical reaction to heat matter to incandescence. The initial photoflash lamps, developed in Germany, consisted of aluminum foil in an oxygenfilled glass envelope, which could be ignited by an electrically fired primer, so that the foil burned to A12O3 in about 20-30 milliseconds.
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From page 57... ...
is large: 7.2 million tons of sand, 2.35 million tons of soda ash, and 2.35 million tons of limestone were needed to manufacture the 10.8 million tons of glass containers, representing 37 billion packaging units, produced in 1970. Color can be controlled in nearly all glasses by additions in glassmaking of a variety of compounds.
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From page 59... ...
40O 300 200 100 50 20 1900 7 -- 59 FIGURE 7.13 GLASS-CONTAINER INDUSTRY SHIPMENTS mi lliors of gross 1900 - 1975 a,' a, ~ h' ,~,~f 1915 400 300 200 - TREND 4.4%/ Y R
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From page 60... ...
7-60 TABLE 7.15 Distribution of Glass-Container Shipments by End-Use: 1958 to 1976 Est. End-Use 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1970 1973 1976 Food 42,9 41.3 40.6 39.5 36.7 32.9 30.7 27.9 Beverage 25.0 27.7 32.5 36.6 40.9 48.8 53.3 58.6 Drug and Cosmetic 23.9 22.5 21.4 19.9 19.6 16.5 14.7 12.6 Chemical, Household, and Industrial 8.2 S.5 5.5 4.0 2.8 1.S 1.3 0.9
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From page 61... ...
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From page 63... ...
The total volume of plastics consumed by the container industry is expected to double in the period 1970-76. Materials availability is directly related to the availability of the primary raw materials, natural gas and petroleum reserves, and to competition with their use for energy applications.
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From page 64... ...
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From page 65... ...
7-65 TABLE 7.16 Consumption of Plastics in Packaging by End-Use; 1958 to 1976 In Millions of Pounds Est. End-Use 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1970 1973 1976 Rigid and Semi-Rigid: Bottles 23 65 175 227 304 730 1150 1700 Tubes Formed and Molded 61 120 175 288 478 3 15 30 35 40 800 1000 1400 Closures 22 22 58 66 85 120 160 210 Total 106 207 408 584 882 1680 2345 3350 Film: 630 776 874 1026 1317 1940 2350 2910 Overall Total 736 I 983 1282 1610 2199 3620 4695 6260
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From page 69... ...
For details, see appropriate portions of the section on the Metals Industry. Recycling of containers has substantial potential, but of the 6.8 million tons of steel which appear in containers every year, only a small portion is recovered.
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From page 71... ...
S . Production of Paperboard by Grade (Million Tons)
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From page 72... ...
7-72 Z , < TIC of S x o C~1 ° lo it CD ~ IL Z ~: J Q - ~: < ~ a.
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From page 73... ...
The only paperboard-packaging material which plays a significant role in paper salvage is corrugated containers. An estimated 2.5 million tons of these containers were recycled in 1966 and amounted to 20% of the 12.5 million tons of containerboard produced that year.
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From page 74... ...
7-74 TABLE 7.19 Commercial Forests of the United States - 509 Million Acres. Historical and Projected Timber Harvest, Growth, and Inventory Growing Stock in Billion Cubic Feet Year Harvest Growth Inventory 1952 10.8 14.3 595.8 1962 10.1 16.3 627.9 1970 11.5 17.4 671.9 1980 13.7 18.2 727.7 1990 16.9 17.2 757.9 2000 21.6 17.2 738.3
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From page 75... ...
58.4 2768 Flat Glass, Total 342.0 12900 Pressed and Blown Glass, n.e.c. 17.1 808 Glass Products made of Purchased Glass except Laminated 100.8 3708 Asbestos Products, Total 142.4 5282 Hardware, n.e.c.
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From page 76... ...
NOTE: Automotive employment is estimated by the Automobile Manufacturers Association, by assuming that such employment in these industries is in direct proportion to the ratio of automotive shipments to total shipments of the industry. 1971 ~tomobile Facts & Figures, p.
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From page 77... ...
In addition to these and other metals, the automotive industry accounted in 1969 for 65% of the national consumption of rubber, and over 2Z of the national cotton production. The economic significance of materials processing technology in this industry is indicated by the fact that roughly $500 worth of raw materials is transformed into a car worth at least $3,500 in functional value, and that materials-related costs are a significant portion of this chain of valueadded manufacturing steps.
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From page 78... ...
7-78 TABLE 7.21 Materials in Typical 1971 Four-Door Sedan Materials Net Weight (Lbs.) Metals 3400 Steel 2500 Iron 750 Aluminum & aluminum alloys 50 Copper & copper alloys 40 Zinc & zinc alloys 30 Lead & lead alloys 30 Plastics 150 Styrene plastic 10 Olefin plastic 20 Vinyl plastic 30 Thermoset molding 15 Other thermoses plastic 15 Plastic foam materials 35 Nylon 25 Other Polymers 200 Paper Paints & coatings Rubber compounds (including tires)
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From page 79... ...
Automotive Consumption (tons) Steel 93,876,871 18,276,409 20 Iron 17,081,299 3,199,456 19 Aluminum 5, 383,500 534,000 10 Copper 2,454,500 287,500 8 Zinc 1, 588,000 517,746 33 Nickel 210,000 23,500 11 Source: 1971 Automobile Facts and Figures, ~ .
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From page 80... ...
7-80 TABLE 7.23 Foreign Ores in a U.S. Automobile Total Pounds of Percentage of Metal Pounds Foreign Metal Foreign Metal Iron 3,705 1,334 36 Copper 52 20 38 Lead 24 14 58 Aluminum 48 44 89 Zinc 123 77 59 Source: B
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From page 81... ...
21 RECYCLING OF FERROUS MATERIALS IN AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY 1970'S .~ LSTEEL MILES I 65~ 100%~ 1 20 % ;\:ASTI NGS PLA NTS I 70% PRoDUCTs \\15% IN-HOUSE \\ 30% SCRAP \\ SCRAP PROCESSING \~ MATERIALS FOUNDRIES ~ ~1% (it/ I N-HOUSE SCRAP .
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From page 82... ...
Automotive consumption of plastics and other polymers grew from 300 million pounds in 1965 to about 1 billion pounds in 1971. Today the list of commercially available polymers includes some 50 different plastics Low tooling costs and design flexibility are major reasons for the use of plastics.
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From page 83... ...
7-83 TABLE 7.24 Comparison of Material Cost* Material Steel 10 0.283 2~8 Aluminum 25 0.100 2.5 Zinc 20 0.236 4.7 ABS 30 0.038 1.1 Polypropylene 25 0.033 0.8 Polyvinyl chloride 28 0.045 1.3 *
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From page 84... ...
Penetration of plastics into the markets for steel, aluminum, and zinc is underscored by the differences in the growth-of-the-demand for these materials during the 1960's. While plastics production increased over 150%, from 3 to 8 million tons, the 10-year increase in steel production was 33%, aluminum 60%, and zinc 25%.
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From page 85... ...
7-85 TABLE 7.25 Automotive Products That Can Be Made of Either Plastic or Metal Automotive Body Components Fuel Tanks Front Seat-Back Trim Panel Radiator Fan Shrouds Front Fender Skirts and Liners Truck Trailer Liners Door Inner Panels and Locks Control Handles and Knobs Glove Compartment Radiator Grilles Instrument Cluster Panels Wheelcovers Cowl Kick Panels Seat Grid Liners Ductwork for Heating, Airconditioning Plated Trim, Decorative Medallions Bezels, Shelves, Mirror Support Arm Rests, Sun Visors
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From page 86... ...
If many of the one-piece sheet-molded front panels had been made of metal, they would have required six or seven pieces with as many as 20 forming and assembly operations. There has also been substantial growth in aluminum usage in the automotive industry.
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From page 87... ...
Developments in other materials than plastics and the light metals continue to be important in the automobile industry. Steels of recent vintage which have had large influence in the field include galvanized steels, whose automotive uses quintupled in the last decade; steels with other improved coatings and finishes, and higher-strength steels.
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From page 88... ...
of this total. The building industry has characteristics which make it quite unique, and therefore difficult to examine for a specific concern, such as innovation in materials technology, without some understanding of its complexities In particular, markets are too smell and heterogeneous for any standardized construction approach even in large production facilities, institutional structures, commercial buildings, and any special class of dwelling.
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From page 90... ...
With almost every type of change -- design, functional, technological, economic, ecological, social, legal, or political -- materials usage is again influenced. ~ Factors Affecting Materials Science and Technology: One of the most significant factors in the building industry has been the relatively rapid increase in the ratio between the cost of job-site labor and material cost.
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From page 91... ...
Likewise, since materials may also lower onsite-labor costs, the potential of materials technology for achieving onsite productivity gains must be as much as in-factory gains. The relationship between labor and material prices is especially relevant in the context of total construction and development costs.
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From page 92... ...
The development of needed criteria for fire-resistant construction materials requires acceleration to complement these practices. The foregoing discussion of cost factors in housing suggests that materials R&D will have little influence on the construction industry from the standpoint of materials costs.
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From page 93... ...
Consequently, increased automation and factory fabrication seem to have been occurring only in cases of intensive repetitive building where there is confidence in a continuing market large enough to permit amortizing the plant investment involved. It is clear that the fragmented character of the building industry is a severe obstacle in the extent to which major advances from materials performance and processing efficiency can be expected to be utilized.
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From page 94... ...
7-94 The designer adopts standards to determine the capabilities and limitations of the material involved. The manufacturer uses standard purchasing specifications in order to define what he wants, and standard methods of test to insure that the material he receives meets the specifications.
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From page 95... ...
7-95 the Society of Automotive Engineers, and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Voluntary consensus standards in the materials area are developed by the American Society for Testing and Materials.
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