Large-Scale Biomedical Science Exploring Strategies for Future Research (2003) / Chapter Skim
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Appendix
Appendix
Pages 213-268
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Appendix A History of Government Funding of Basic Science Research and the Development of Big-Science Projects in the Context of High-Energy Particle Physics MaryJoy Ballantyne Research Associate National Cancer Policy Board Institute of Medicine The National Academies
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High-Energy Particle Physics, 230 1937: The National Cancer Institute (NCI) , 232 Change in National Focus: Earth Sciences to Physical (Laboratory)
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, 242 1952: CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) , 242 1954: The President's Science Advisor, 243 1989: The End of the Cold War, 243 Part II: ISSUES IN CONDUCTING LARGE SCALE COLLABORATIONS IN HIGH-ENERGY PARTICLE PHYSICS 246 Funding, 247 Allocation of Federal Science Research Funds, 247 Traditional University Funding Mechanism, 249 Large-Scale Versus Small-Scale Research, 249 Basic Versus Applied Research, 250 Organization, 251 Size and Personnel, 251 Choosing Collaborators, 252 Communication, 253 International Collaborations, 253 Management, 253 The Spokesperson, 254 Management Issues, 254 Compensation, Career Advancement, and Academic Recognition, 255 Universities Research Association (URA)
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(AIP, 1992) This paper is a supplement to a study conducted by the National Cancer Policy Board on big science in cancer research.
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Coast Survey, the Department of Agriculture, and the U.S. Geological Survey.
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Debate ensued during the Constitutional Convention of the late 1780s, as proposals outlining government's relationship with science were presented. Proposals for a national university devoted to advanced scientific training, societies chartered by the government, technical schools, and prized and direct subsidies for creative effort could all have become realities.
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Coast and Geodetic Survey and was transferred in 1913 to the Department of Commerce, where it was later consolidated with the National Weather Service, and where it currently resides as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (Rabbitt, 2000; U.S.
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government. Bache embarked on a policy of publishing the results of the Coast Survey and the related work of other professional scientists in the Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, elevating American science in the eyes of the world scientific community (Coast and Geodetic Survey Annual Reports, 1844-1910~.
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In addition, during its early tenure within the Navy, the Coast Survey conducted activities that led to the establishment of the Depot of Charts and Instruments in 1844, which served as a central office where both naval and commercial seamen could deposit and retrieve new navigational information and technology. In the mid-1800s, this office was divided into the Naval Observatory and the Naval Hydrographic Office, whose respective responsibilities included gathering astronomical data for navigation and charting the ocean floor (National Archives and Records Administration Records of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1807-1965~.
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territories such as Guam and the Virgin Islands and 29 Native American institutions. 1870: United States Weather Service At about the same time as the development of the land-grant colleges, civilian and military weather observation networks began to grow and expand across the United States.
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Coast and Geodetic Survey and renamed the National Weather Service. The National Weather Service, which currently resides under the jurisdiction of NOAA, provides the bulk of all meteorological information used in forecasting weather conditions both inside and outside of the United States.
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Within 2 years, his annual appropriation had doubled, his investigation had been formally titled The United States Geological Survey of the Territories, and his work had been placed under the authority of the Secretary of the Interior. Hayden's most ambitious expeditions were the well-equipped investigations of the Yellowstone and Teton Mountain area of Wyoming.
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Upon granting King his commission an expedition entitled the Geological Survey of the Fortieth Parallel the secretary of war dispensed some advice: "The sooner you get out of Washington, the better. You are too young a man to be seen about town with this appointment in your pocket.
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Geological Survey, was established in 1879 to carry out the work. King was hired as its first director.
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It was also at this time that the extramural research program began with the transfer of certain wartime medical research contracts from the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD; see below)
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A thermal diffusion process was conceived and used to supply some of the U235 isotope needed for one of the first atomic bombs (NRL, 2001~. Because of scientific accomplishments during the war years, the United States sought to preserve the working relationship between its armed forces and the scientific community, desiring to consolidate its wartime gains in science and technology.
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The focus, organization, and management of the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley were soon to be altered by three important events, all occurring in 1939: World War II began; Ernest Lawrence won the Nobel Prize for his work on the cyclotron; and Niels Bohr, on a visit to the United States to attend a conference at the Carnegie Institution, announced to American scientists that two German scientists had discovered fission. These events would also have a permanent effect on the entire world of particle physics.
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It became the embodiment of big science in physics. Its prewar development had provided a base on which the temporary expansion demanded by war could take place successfully.
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The surrender of Japan ended the emergency that had created the federally funded National Laboratories, but not the large organization and tight security that had come to characterize nuclear science. The methods and resources of big science, enlarged by the war, were to dominate the study of physics in peace as well.
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Sciences During the late nineteenth century, the years following the Civil War, federal support for research in the earth sciences had expanded enormously, supplying extraordinary investment to fields relevant to one of the major national missions of the era the exploration, settlement, and economic development of the Far West. This increase in federally supported science displeased conservatives, who thought that the govern
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In physics, chemistry, and astronomy, Americans had published only one-third as much work since the Revolution as their French and British colleagues (Kevles, 1995~. At the turn of the twentieth century, using the momentum, experience, and scientific knowledge gained in the previous century's research activities, American science was poised to begin exploring new frontiers in the physical sciences.
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Vannevar Bush's contributions to the advancement of science and technology and the expansion of federal science policy in the United States have had a lasting impact. Although the official executive office of Scientific Advisor to the President was not organized until the Eisenhower Administration, Bush's influential involvement with Franklin Roosevelt during a critical period in the country's history and the wartime projects he organized had a significant effect on the course of American science.
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In tune 1942, when the substantial costs required for production became obvious, Bush turned the project over to the Army Corps of Engineers, whose massive wartime budget could bury the effort, and where it could be disguised as the Manhattan Project. By October 1942, to speed up progress, Bush requested that Colonel Leslie R
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Scientists in both universities and industry were "free to make the most of the creative powers" (Killian, 1982~. Many of the most notable physicists, several of whom were Nobel Laureates, became directors of the National Laboratories, including Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley, and the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory.
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Vannevar Bush was among those who wished federal investments in science to continue after the war. In response to a letter he had received from President Roosevelt inquiring about the returns from and economic value of this federal investment, Bush wrote a report entitled Science: The Endless Frontier.
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The organization of new agencies facilitated the funding and coordination of both small- and large-scale science research projects in many different disciplines, and gave rise to both intramural and extramural research programs. The extramural grant system provided federal funding to universities for science research, but without interference from the government regarding the details of conducting individual research projects.
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The origins of DOE can be traced to the Manhattan Project and the race to develop the atomic bomb during World War II.
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Several of the research centers created to support the Manhattan Project formed a set of "National Laboratories." These laboratories were incorporated into the AEC in 1947, which, as noted, later became DOE. As a result, accelerator physics (high-energy particle physics)
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1952: CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) Given the enormous and continually increasing costs associated with particle physics, it became apparent after World War II that success and the continued pursuit of knowledge in this field would depend on largescale international collaborations.
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. 1989: The End of the Cold War The momentum gained in facilities, research, and training as a result of the Manhattan Project and the new government policy measures to support basic science research at universities gave American high-energy physicists a great head start after the war.
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1787 1789 1790 1792 1798 1800 1802 Constitutional Convention Organization of the government First patent law; first census The Mint Medical care for merchant seamen Library of Congress Army Corps of Engineers; United States Military Academy, West Point, New York Lewis and Clark expedition Coast Survey Act Federal law establishing vaccine agent Long expedition to the Rockies Navy Depot of Charts and Instruments Reorganization of Patent Office United States Exploring Expedition National Institute for the Promotion of Science Naval Observatory; United States Botanical Garden United States Naval Academy Smithsonian Institute American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
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APPENDIX 1863 1866 1867 1869 1870 245 1849 Bache's presidential address before AAAS 1850 President Buchanan's veto of land-grant college bill 1861 Government Printing Office; Outbreak of the Civil War 1862 Department of Agriculture; Homestead Act; Morrill Act for land-grant colleges National Academy of Sciences; Army Signal Corps Navy Hydrographic Office separated from Naval Observatory King's geological survey of fortieth parallel Wheeler's geographical surveys west of hundredth meridian Meteorological work begins in Army Signal Corps; Powell's geographical survey of Colorado River Hayden's geological/geographical survey of the territories U.S. Geological Survey; National Board on Health Founding of Science journal Hygienic Laboratory; Hatch Act for Agricultural Experiment Stations Transfer of meteorological service from Army to Department of Agriculture, creating the National Weather Bureau 1891 Astrophysical Observatory at Smithsonian Institute 1893 Army Medical School 1901 National Bureau of Standards; Bureaus of Chemistry, Plant Industry, and Soils in Department of Agriculture Committee on Organization of Scientific Work Pure Food and Drug Act Public Health Service National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics; Naval Consulting Board National Research Council; National Park Service Entry into World War I Chemical Warfare Service Naval Research Laboratory National Research Fund National Institute of Health Science Advisory Board National Cancer Institute Research: A National Resource National Defense Research Committee Office of Scientific Research and Development; entry into World War II Atomic Energy Commission; Office of Naval Research National Science Foundation Creation of President's Science Advisor 1916 1917 1918 1923 1926 1930 1933 1937 1938 1940 1941 1946 1950 1954 FIGURE A-1 Chronology of government-funded science.
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Alvin Weinberg coined the phrase "big science" and some of the issues associated with it in 1961. Since then, many fields have made claims to pursuing 'big science' projects.
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Allocation of Federal Science Research Funds The process of allocating federal funds in the United States is much more complex and detailed than the following summary (see Figure 4.1~.
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Within the individual science funding agencies and the specific disciplines, mechanisms in place that help in setting priorities include the individual agency advisory committees, peer review mechanisms, the Office of Science and Technology Policy and various other White House advisory committees, and the National Research Council system. Even with these mechanisms in place, however, there is no avoiding competition among the various claims on federal funds, and there is no policy in place for what to do when there is just not enough money to go around when the political system decides it has other pri
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Large-Scale Versus Small-Scale Research The debate over whether to fund large or small projects in the field of high-energy particle physics is somewhat moot because the expense associated with pursuing research in this area has mandated ever-larger collaborations that are almost always considered big science. It was reported within the AIP survey that one high-energy physicist had actually left the field so as not to have to work in a large collaboration.
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Scientists have also expressed concern that funding large-scale research rather than small projects will result in a loss of research independence to more directed research projects. These concerns are not as great among high-energy particle physicists because most of the experiments conducted at accelerators are attempting to explore unknown frontiers and answer fundamental questions, and research pursuits are seldom directed by the facilities.
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Organizers of experiments need to attract enough physicists to an experiment to convince the large accelerator laboratory administrators that the experiment, if approved, could be built and run as proposed. These large accelerator facilities require detailed contracts called Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs)
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Would-be experiment organizers have also used summer programs and open meetings to enlarge their circle of colleagues. Other collaborations have been formed when large accelerator facilities combined separate teams of scientists who had submitted similar research proposals into "shotgun marriages." One element cited as key in forming a workable collaboration was the ability of experimenters to work harmoniously with the accelerator laboratory's staff.
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International Collaborations International collaborations have increasingly become necessary to make experiments feasible. Reasons for forming these consortia include the desire to use and learn an experimental technique developed by a foreign group, the need of a domestic experiment for more manpower and money, a brokered merger by a facility director between domestic and foreign collaborators who had submitted similar proposals, and the desire of U.S.
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Junior faculty on experiments desire the office of spokesperson in the belief that it will help their tenure campaigns (American Institute of Physics, 1992~. Management Issues Collaboration dynamics raise several problems cited by the AIP survey respondents.
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According to a former Fermilab director, the growth of big science is shrinking the job market. "We get fewer scientists per dollar" because more money is going into the construction of massive experimental apparatuses, and less into salaries (Flam, 1992~.
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, Inc. President Lyndon Tohnson's Science Advisory Committee and the National Academy of Sciences initiated the not-for-profit URA Corporation in 1965 for "the management and operation of research facilities in the national interest." These laboratories have traditionally been associated with expensive large-scale physics projects conducted at accelerator facilities.
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As with many decisions, there is a lag time between when a decision is made, and when its effects become apparent; this is true for fiscal budget decisions, making it difficult to predict and manage the effects of federal funding decisions. Government investment in large-scale university physics research
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258 1900 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 98 Year APPENDIX ~ ~ ~Q~ - ~ 400 - ~ 200 - ~ 000 - ~Q~ - ~Q~ - 4OQ - 2OQ Number degrees FIGURE A-2 Number of physics Ph.D.s conferred in the United States, 19001998.
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During the early 1980s, funding for physics research rose again, but the increase was short-lived after the Cold War ended in 1989. The dependence on government funding for university-based research and training caused several problems after the Cold War in the early l990s.
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Nobelist Leon Lederman stated, "Industry is shucking research, universities are retrenching, and national labs are on a decayed mission and don't know what they are going to do" (Flam, 1992~. The relatively steady federal investment in physics research after World War II and through the Cold War era had created large training programs, numerous research projects, and a plethora of physicists.
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Graduate programs also touted a physics education as good general training, and they began to communicate to students the realities of the physics academic world. According to some, despite these efforts and other factors, including the recent increase in federal support for physics and the development of new avenues of research, there are not enough trained and qualified individuals in the field (Freidman,2000~.
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With regard to physics education, the National Research Council report (2001) points out that advanced undergraduate and graduate curricula should reflect physics as it is currently practiced, making appropriate connections to other areas of science, to engineering, and to schools of management.
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undergraduate and graduate students studying physics. Intellectual Property Soon after Lawrence built his first accelerator, a not-for-profit research facility, The Research Corporation, obtained the rights to the cyclotron on the understanding that Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory would continue to be a beneficiary of the corporation's policy of investing proceeds from its patents back into research at the university.
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In comparing big particle physics projects with large-scale research pursuits in biology in such areas as genomics and proteomics, one finds several differences between the fields in the definition and outcomes of their large-scale projects. Traditionally, the vast majority of expense involved in particle physics has been in building the facilities the accelerators and detectors.
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2000. Physics community: Physics graduate programs train students for industrial careers.
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1995. Big Science: Atomic Bomb Research and the Beginnings of High-Energy Physics.
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The Coast and Geodetic Survey Annual Reports 1844-1919 bibliography. Universities Research Association.
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