Growing Up Global The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries (2005) / Chapter Skim
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416 7 The Transition to Marriage INTRODUCTION In all regions of the world, most people over age 30 are either currently in a long-term coresidential sexual union, or they have been at one time in their lives. Even in populations of European origin, who have generally exhibited the smallest percentages of adults ever in unions, the fraction of the population who never married is on the order of 10 or 15 percent (with some exceptions, for example, 19th century Ireland -- Watkins, 1986)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 417 marriage per se or the characteristics of those who marry early that increases the risk of dissolution. Despite the fact that marriage or union formation is nearly universal, many aspects of this transition vary from place to place.
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418 GROWING UP GLOBAL age at marriage is difficult to establish (van de Walle and Meekers, 1994)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 419 by age group for two censuses or surveys but only for those countries with a separate consensual union category, which is a subset of countries in which consensual unions are common. Tables 7-1 and 7-2, based on the UN database, show the percentage of women and men ever in a union1 by age group from data collected at two different points in time.
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420 GROWING UP GLOBAL China,4 which ranks very low in the level of young marriage and relatively high in the level of marriage at older ages. Not only is marriage during the teenage years uncommon among men, but also marriage in the early 20s is much less frequent among men than among women and, in some regions, has declined substantially in recent years.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 421 a large contrast, however, between the low-income category and these other two. That is, men and women in low-income countries married earlier than their counterparts in wealthier countries.
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422 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 7-1 Percentage of Women Ever Married by Age, Time Period, and Regiona (Weightedb Averages) Ages 15-19 Region Time 1c Time 2 Population 1970- 1990- Annual Region Represented 1989 2000 Change Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 89.8 37.5 24.5 –.75 Western/Middle Africa 30.8 53.0 38.4 –.89 Asia Eastern Asiad 98.1 4.2 1.3 –.24 South-central/South-eastern Asia 93.3 39.6 32.3 –.64 Former Soviete Asia 37.8 9.4 9.6 .02 Latin America and Caribbean Caribbean/Central America 87.5 20.6 18.1 –.27 South Americaf 99.9 14.4 16.3 .12 Middle Eastg Western Asia/Northern Africa 62.8 21.0 14.9 –.59 TOTAL 86.5 26.6 20.8 –.48 aRegional groupings based on United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision (2003b)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 423 eFormer Soviet Asia includes former Soviet Republics in South-central and Western Asia. f15-19-year-old married data not available for Argentina, Survey 1.
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424 T A B L E 7 -2 P er ce nt ag e of M en E ve r M ar ri ed , by A ge , T im e Pe ri od , an d R eg io n (W ei gh te d A ve ra ge s)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 425 married by ages 20, 25, and 30 by age group for 29 countries with surveys between 1994 and 2001: 9 in Eastern and Southern Africa, 14 in Western and Central Africa, and 6 in Latin America. As with the data on women, the weighted averages shown are the country's percentage of the region's population ages 10-24 in 2000.
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426 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 7-3 Percentage of Women Ever Married, by Age, Time Period, Incomea Group (Weighted Averages) Ages 15-19 Income Group Population Time 1b Time 2 Annual Income Level Represented 1970-1989 1990-2000 Change Low 81.0 42.5 34.1 –.66 Lower Middlec 29.4 19.6 14.5 –.50 Upper Middled 92.7 15.7 14.4 –.15 TOTAL 63.9 34.6 27.8 –.55 aWorld Bank income classifications.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 427 NOTES: For source of regional groupings and population data for weighted averages, see Table 7-1. Further detail can be found in Appendix A
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428 T A B L E 7 -4 P er ce nt ag e of M en E ve r M ar ri ed , by A ge , T im e Pe ri od , In co m ea G ro up ( W ei gh te d A ve ra ge s)
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429 T A B L E 7 -5 P er ce nt ag e of W om en E ve r M ar ri ed b y A ge s 18 , 20 , an d 25 , by A ge a t T im e of S ur ve y an d R eg io n (W ei gh te d A ve ra ge s)
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430 T A B L E 7 -6 P er ce nt ag e of W om en E ve r M ar ri ed b y A ge s 18 , 20 , an d 25 , by A ge a t T im e of S ur ve y an d In co m ea L ev el o f C ou nt ry ( W ei gh te d A ve ra ge s)
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431 T A B L E 7 -7 P er ce nt ag e of M en E ve r M ar ri ed b y A ge s 20 , 25 , an d 30 , by A ge a t T im e of S ur ve y (W ei gh te d A ve ra ge s)
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432 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 7-8 Percentage of Women Ages 20-24 Ever Married by Age 18, by Years of Schooling and Regiona (Weighted Averages) Years of Schooling Population Region Represented 0-3 4-7 8+ Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 91.7 51.2 38.6 12.6 Western/Middle Africab 75.2 70.5 36.8 14.1 Asia South-central/South-eastern Asiac 28.0 55.7 44.0 17.3 Latin America and Caribbean Caribbean/Central America 21.0 55.5 43.9 14.7 South America 74.1 41.7 30.3 10.8 Middle East Western Asia/Northern Africad 49.6 38.9 25.6 6.4 TOTAL -- All DHS 34.4 53.2 37.6 13.5 aFormer Soviet Asia excluded because too few women with less than 8+ years of schooling.
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433 T A B L E 7 -9 P er ce nt ag e of W om en A ge s 20 -2 4 E ve r M ar ri ed b y A ge 1 8, b y H ou se ho ld E co no m ic S ta tu s an d R eg io na (W ei gh te d A ve ra ge s)
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434 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 7-10 Percentage of Women Ages 20-24 Ever Married by Age 18, by Rural-Urban Residence and Region (Weighted Averages) Population Region Represented Rural Urban Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 91.7 41.0 25.3 Western/Middle Africaa 75.2 52.2 30.1 Asia South-central/South-eastern Asia 86.0 48.4 24.3 Former Soviet Asia 68.4 17.9 13.9 Latin America/Caribbean Caribbean/Central America 21.0 44.5 27.6 South America 74.1 31.4 20.3 Middle East Western Asia/Northern Africa 54.8 28.3 16.7 TOTAL -- All DHS 59.8 44.4 23.9 aGabon excluded; data on women unavailable at time of this analysis.
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435 T A B L E 7 -1 1 Pe rc en ta ge o f M en A ge s 20 -2 4 E ve r M ar ri ed b y A ge 2 0, b y Y ea rs o f Sc ho ol in g, R ur al -U rb an R es id en ce , H ou se ho ld E co no m ic S ta tu s, a nd R eg io n (W ei gh te d A ve ra ge s)
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436 GROWING UP GLOBAL 11Large public use samples from the two most recent censuses for Mexico (1990 and 2000) , Kenya (1989 and 1999)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 437 one might expect, given the determining power often attributed to educational change (Mensch, Singh, and Casterline, 2005)
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438 GROWING UP GLOBAL gued to be a strong rationale for a parent's willingness to postpone marriage (Jejeebhoy, 1995)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 439 0 25 50 75 100 Left school, male Left school, female Married, male Married, female Early Middl Mexico, 2000 0 25 50 75 100 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Age Pe rc en ta ge South Africa, 2000 0 25 50 75 100 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Age Pe rc en ta ge Vietnam, 1999 0 25 50 75 100 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Age Pe rc en ta ge September 2000 South Africa Labour Force Survey, Statistics South Africa, courtesy of David Lam (University of Michigan) ; the Child Health and Nutrition Survey in China from 1997, courtesy of Emily Hannum (University of Pennsylvania)
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440 GROWING UP GLOBAL BOX 7-1 Does Factory Work Discourage Early Marriage for Women? Evidence from Bangladesh Since the first garment factory was established in Bangladesh in the late 1970s, the export of manufactured goods (especially garments)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 441 In the United States there is evidence from analysis of recent census data that better labor market conditions for young women reduce marriage rates (Blau, Kahn, and Waldfogel, 2000)
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442 GROWING UP GLOBAL birth cohorts in Dakar, Senegal, and found that the employment status of men had a significant impact on the likelihood of marriage. Moreover, while men of the earlier generation (born between 1930 and 1944)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 443 the rise in the age of marriage and the costs of marriage, there is enough anecdotal data from Egypt and responses from surveys about the financial burdens of marriage to warrant further investigation. Perhaps increasing exposure to Western media has altered consumer norms and raised the expectations of young people worldwide, so that men feel obligated to postpone marriage until they have acquired the resources needed to establish a household.
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444 GROWING UP GLOBAL 16See http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp. footing with others.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 445 regard to age differences (Casterline, Williams, and McDonald, 1986:13)
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446 GROWING UP GLOBAL 22-23 24-25 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Me an S po us e/P art ne r A ge D iffe ren ce Woman's Age at Marriage 14-15 16-17 18-19 20-21 W/M Africa E/S Africa Middle East SC/SE Asia Central America/Caribbean South America Former Soviet Asia FIGURE 7-2a Mean spouse/partner age difference by woman's age at marriage, women 25-34. SOURCE: Demographic and Health Surveys.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 447 the difference between male and female median age of marriage.18 She observed that the age difference, while inversely correlated with woman's age at marriage for the last 40 years and positively correlated with male age at marriage from the mid-1950s through the end of the 1970s, is now not associated with male age at marriage. Quisumbing and Hallman (2005)
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448 GROWING UP GLOBAL there is an inverse relationship between the stability of marriage and the spousal age gap, then the mean age difference observed for women ages 4549 who are currently in a first marriage will be lower than that for all evermarried women ages 45-49. Comparing age differences among 45-49-year-olds with 25-29-yearolds indicates a narrowing of the gap over time, especially in Eastern and Southern Africa, Western and Middle Africa, the Middle East, and Southcentral and South-eastern Asia, where there has been a decline in the proportion of women marrying men more than 10 years older, and an increase, in Eastern and Southern Africa, in the proportion of women with an age gap of 5 years or less.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 449 SOURCES: Demographic and Health Surveys tabulations from 42 countries, 1994-2001. Côte d'Ivoire, Indonesia, Morocco, Namibia, Pakistan, Paraguay, Senegal, Tanzania, and Yemen excluded; surveys had no question regarding current age of spouse.
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450 GROWING UP GLOBAL to have diminished. A 15-year-old woman marrying a 25-year-old man probably has a lesser role in household decision making than a 25-year-old woman marrying a 35-year-old man.
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451 T A B L E 7 -1 3 Pe rc en ta ge o f C ur re nt ly M ar ri ed W om en i n Po ly gy no us U ni on s in S ub -S ah ar an A fr ic a W FS D H SI D H SII D H SII I D H SII I D H SIV C ou nt ry 19 77 -1 98 2 19 86 -1 99 0 19 90 -1 99 3 19 93 -1 99 6 19 97 -1 99 9 19 98 -2 00 1 B en in 34 .6 49 .6 46 .3 B ur ki na F as o 51 .1 54 .7 B ur un di 11 .6 C am er oo n 39 .7 38 .6 33 .1 C en tr al A fr ic an R ep ub li c 28 .5 C ôt e d' Iv oi re 41 .4 36 .6 35 .0 G ha na 34 .4 32 .6 27 .7 22 .7 G ui ne a 49 .6 53 .7 K en ya 29 .5 23 .4 19 .5 16 .3 L es ot ho 8.
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452 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 7-14 Percentage of Currently Married Women Ages 20-29 in Polygynous Unions in Sub-Saharan Africa Ages County and Year of Survey 20-24 25-29 Benin 1996 39.0 46.2 Benin 2001 32.8 41.7 Burkina Faso 1992-1993 40.5 50.4 Burkina Faso 1998-1999 43.4 48.6 Cameroon 1991 31.6 36.1 Cameroon 1998 25.4 29.5 Côte d'Ivoire 1994 27.3 34.2 Côte d'Ivoire 1998-1999 27.0 27.5 Ghana 1988 25.5 28.5 Ghana 1993 18.9 21.7 Ghana 1998 13.2 15.8 Kenya 1989 17.8 17.7 Kenya 1993 12.6 15.2 Kenya 1998 9.2 15.0 Madagascar 1992 6.8 7.0 Madagascar 1997 4.2 4.2 Malawi 1992 13.0 22.1 Malawi 2000 11.3 18.1 Mali 1987 36.0 39.7 Mali 1995-1996 30.0 40.6 Niger 1992 26.1 36.0 Niger 1998 29.2 36.7 Nigeria 1990 33.7 35.8 Nigeria 1999 26.5 30.6 Rwanda 1992 8.4 9.8 Rwanda 2000 8.0 9.1 Senegal 1986 33.2 41.0 Senegal 1992-1993 33.1 42.6 Senegal 1997 35.0 42.5 Tanzania 1992 18.6 27.4 Tanzania 1996 20.1 27.3 Togo 1988 39.9 51.1 Togo 1998 28.6 37.8 Uganda 1988 31.8 32.4 Uganda 1995 23.2 32.0 Uganda 2000-2001 25.5 31.9 Zambia 1992 10.8 17.3 Zambia 1996 10.0 16.6 Zimbabwe 1988 11.7 14.0 Zimbabwe 1994 12.4 18.2 Zimbabwe 1999 14.8 15.2 SOURCE: Demographic and Health Surveys tabulations from 1987-2001.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 453 poverty" (Antoine and Nanitelamia, 1996) , which refers to the situation in which a man who does not have the means to take on another wife marries a woman involved in a remunerative activity.
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454 GROWING UP GLOBAL the right to choose a spouse and to enter marriage with "free and full consent." In December 2003, Pakistan's highest court legalized so called free-will marriages21; the ruling enables women 18 and older to marry without obtaining the consent of a parent or guardian. One potential factor contributing to the reduction in early marriage among women is a movement away from arranged marriages (Hull, 2002; Malhotra and Tsui, 1996)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 455 some parts of the world. An article on marriage in Kenya written in 2003 cites William Goode's seminal volume on the family, which was published over 30 years ago, to buttress the claim that "[m]
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456 GROWING UP GLOBAL arranged, the extent to which young people become independent of parents in choosing their life partners has implications for their obligations to the family, the financial and social support they can expect from parents, their postmarital residence, sexual activity and fertility behavior." The data that exist on the relative involvement of parents and young people in the selection of marriage partners suggest that in a number of societies in which arranged marriage was a common feature of the marriage process, there has been a movement in recent years toward self-choice. This decline in kin control or increase in a young woman's involvement in mate selection has been documented with survey data in China (Feng and Quanhe, 1996; Whyte, 1990; Xiaohe and Whyte, 1990)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 457 education are significant determinants of spouse choice for women in Indonesia, only living away from the parental home before marriage is significant for men, evidence that status concerns are more important for daughters' than sons' marriages (Malhotra, 1991)
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458 GROWING UP GLOBAL BOX 7-2 Literacy and Love: Education, Globalization, and Changing Marriage Patterns in Rural Nepal "Life is an infinite circle .
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 459 and the practice of elopement increased markedly. The textbooks used in government schools and literacy classes as well as the film magazines that are now widely read appear to have exposed villagers to notions of romantic love and resulted in an increased sense of agency on the part of the younger generation.
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460 GROWING UP GLOBAL changing nature of partner selection beginning in the 1960s has been associated with an increase in premarital sex, a rise in coital frequency in the first years of marriage, and a corresponding decline in the first birth interval (Feng and Quanhe, 1996; Rindfuss and Morgan, 1983; Thornton et al., 1994)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 461 nomically feasible choice" (Bittles, 1994:576)
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462 GROWING UP GLOBAL Financial Transfers: Bride-Price, Dowry, and Assets Brought to Marriage In many developing countries, especially in Africa and Southern Asia, marriage has traditionally involved not only the selection of a mate by one's family but also the transfer of gifts, cash, valuables, and consumer goods from the groom's family to the bride's or vice versa. When this transfer is from the bride's family to the groom's family, it is known as dowry or more precisely groom-price; when the transfer is from the groom's family to the bride's family, it is known as bridewealth or bride-price.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 463 courtship process to signal his intention to marry their daughter (Mensch et al., 1999)
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464 GROWING UP GLOBAL gaining power of young people relative to their parents as a result of greater financial independence has led both to a decline in bridewealth and a reduction in the age difference between spouses. "Young women are more inclined to choose young men as marriage partners [rather than rich older men]
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 465 there is a considerable body of recent studies of dowry in South Asia. A common theme underlies this research, namely, that dowry (or groomprice)
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466 GROWING UP GLOBAL an increase in the level of village endogamy, since marriages within the village obviate the necessity of payments to the groom's family.31 There is considerable discussion in the literature that the emergence of dowry or excessive dowry payments has undermined the status of women even in the face of increasing education. In India, even researchers refer to dowry as being "evil" and mention is frequently made of daughter-only families becoming destitute and young wives committing suicide and being beaten or burned because of dowry demands (Bhat and Halli, 1999; Suguna, 1998; Sureender, Kahn, and Radhakrishman, 1997)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 467 that even in countries in which dowry and bride-price are common, they constitute only a small fraction of the physical assets and human capital that men and women bring to marriage. An examination of survey data from six developing countries -- Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Mexico, Guatemala, the Philippines, and South Africa -- reveals that: (1)
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468 GROWING UP GLOBAL percentage who no longer live with parents. She found that the majority of young adults ages 20-34 of both sexes had left parental households and set up separate residences (De Vos, 1995)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 469 nuclear households. Given the small number of countries and the short interval between surveys, it is not possible to come to any conclusions about the living arrangements of young married women in most developing countries or about the association between an increase in age at marriage and a change in household structure.
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470 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 7-15 Percentage of Currently Married Women Ages 20-29 Living in Nuclear Householdsa and Percentage Who Live in Nuclear Households Who Are Either the Household Head or the Spouse of the Headb % Nuclear Household Country Year of Survey Regionc 20-24 25-29 Colombia 1990 SA 61.0 69.2 Colombia 2000 SA 59.6 65.0 Peru 1991 SA 52.7 61.7 Peru 2000 SA 60.6 68.7 Tanzania 1992 E/S Africa 42.5 53.2 Tanzania 2000 E/S Africa 43.8 51.4 Burkina Faso 1992-1993 W/M Africa 51.4 50.9 Burkina Faso 1999 W/M Africa 58.0 58.9 Cameroon 1991 W/M Africa 49.9 48.4 Cameroon 1997 W/M Africa 49.4 47.2 Nigeria 1990 W/M Africa 61.6 62.2 Nigeria 1999 W/M Africa 70.7 71.4 Egypt 1992 ME 38.0 48.5 Egypt 2000 ME 46.3 54.6 Bangladesh 1993-1994 SC/SE Asia 47.8 59.0 Bangladesh 1999-2000 SC/SE Asia 41.4 52.1 India 1992 SC/SE Asia 20.7 32.5 India 1998-2000 SC/SE Asia 21.8 34.0 Indonesia 1991 SC/SE Asia 56.0 66.9 Indonesia 1997 SC/SE Asia 55.2 68.3 aNuclear household includes household head, spouse of head, children, adopted and foster children, and nonrelatives. bFor all countries except Burkina Faso, Egypt, and India, information from the household data was merged with the individual data; in Burkina Faso, Egypt, and India all necessary information was available in the household roster.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 471 cKey: SA = South America; E/S Africa = Eastern and Southern Africa; W/M Africa = Western and Middle Africa; ME = Middle East; SC/SE Asia = South-central/South-eastern Asia. SOURCE: Demographic and Health Surveys.
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472 GROWING UP GLOBAL religious laws contradict national laws. In other countries, for example, Tanzania, penal codes contradict national laws (Center for Reproductive Law and Policy, 1997a)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 473 substantial numbers of girls wed during their teenage years. In Bangladesh, India, and Nepal, where the legal age at marriage for women is 18, but large proportions of girls marry before then, there are now governmental and NGO efforts directed at lowering the incidence of teen marriage.
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474 GROWING UP GLOBAL TABLE 7-16 Legal Minimum Age at Marriage Without Parental Consent: 2000 (81 countries) Country Region Male Female Nicaragua Caribbean/Central America 15 14 Panama Caribbean/Central America 16 15 Barbados Caribbean/Central America 18 18 Costa Rica Caribbean/Central America 18 18 Cuba Caribbean/Central America 18 18 Dominican Republic Caribbean/Central America 18 18 Guatemala Caribbean/Central America 18 18 Haiti Caribbean/Central America 18 18 Jamaica Caribbean/Central America 18 18 Trinidad & Tobago Caribbean/Central America 18 18 El Salvador Caribbean/Central America 21 21 Honduras Caribbean/Central America 21 21 Ethiopia Eastern/Southern Africa 18 15 Kenya Eastern/Southern Africa 18 18 Madagascar Eastern/Southern Africa 18 18 Malawi Eastern/Southern Africa 18 18 Mauritius Eastern/Southern Africa 18 18 Namibia Eastern/Southern Africa 18 18 South Africa Eastern/Southern Africa 18 18 United Republic of Tanzania Eastern/Southern Africa 18 15 Zimbabwe Eastern/Southern Africa 18 18 Burundi Eastern/Southern Africa 21 18 Rwanda Eastern/Southern Africa 21 21 Uganda Eastern/Southern Africa 21 21 Zambia Eastern/Southern Africa 21 21 Mongolia Eastern Asia 18 18 Yemen Middle East 15 15 Turkey Middle East 17 15 Egypt Middle East 18 16 Iraq Middle East 18 18 Jordan Middle East 18 17 Morocco Middle East 18 15 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Middle East 20 20 Tunisia Middle East 20 20 Algeria Middle East 21 18 Bolivia South America 16 14 Peru South America 16 14 Venezuela South America 16 16 Argentina South America 18 16 Brazil South America 18 16 Chile South America 18 18
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 475 Colombia South America 18 18 Ecuador South America 18 18 Guyana South America 18 18 Uruguay South America 18 18 Paraguay South America 20 20 Lao People's Democratic Republic South-central/South-eastern Asia 18 18 Pakistan South-central/South-eastern Asia 18 18 Philippines South-central/South-eastern Asia 18 18 Sri Lanka South-central/South-eastern Asia 18 18 Indonesia South-central/South-eastern Asia 19 16 Bhutan South-central/South-eastern Asia 20 16 Cambodia South-central/South-eastern Asia 20 18 Thailand South-central/South-eastern Asia 20 20 Viet Nam South-central/South-eastern Asia 20 18 Bangladesh South-central/South-eastern Asia 21 18 India South-central/South-eastern Asia 21 18 Nepal South-central/South-eastern Asia 21 18 Myanmar South-central/South-eastern Asia none 20 Georgia Former Soviet Asia 16 16 Armenia Former Soviet Asia 17 17 Azerbaijan Former Soviet Asia 18 18 Kazakhstan Former Soviet Asia 18 17 Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz Republic) Former Soviet Asia 18 18 Tajikistan Former Soviet Asia 18 18 Liberia Western/Middle Africa 16 16 Cameroon Western/Middle Africa 18 15 Central Africa Republic Western/Middle Africa 18 18 Democratic Republic of the Congo Western/Middle Africa 18 15 Gabon Western/Middle Africa 18 15 Guinea Western/Middle Africa 18 17 Guinea-Bissau Western/Middle Africa 18 15 Nigeria Western/Middle Africa 18 18 Burkina Faso Western/Middle Africa 20 17 Senegal Western/Middle Africa 20 16 Togo Western/Middle Africa 20 17 Ghana Western/Middle Africa 21 21 Mali Western/Middle Africa 21 18 Sierra Leone Western/Middle Africa 21 18 Chad Western/Middle Africa none 14 Gambia Western/Middle Africa none none SOURCE: IPPF and IWRAW (2000)
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476 T A B L E 7 -1 7 L eg al M in im um A ge a t M ar ri ag e W it ho ut P ar en ta l C on se nt : 19 90 a nd 2 00 0 (5 5 co un tr ie s)
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477 Y em en M id dl e E as t 15 15 19 16 L ib ya n A ra b Ja m ah ir iy a M id dl e E as t 20 20 20 16 T un is ia M id dl e E as t 20 20 20 17 C hi le So ut h A m er ic a 18 18 14 12 E cu ad or So ut h A m er ic a 18 18 14 12 Pa ra gu ay So ut h A m er ic a 20 20 14 12 V en ez ue la So ut h A m er ic a 16 16 14 12 B ol iv ia So ut h A m er ic a 16 14 16 14 Pe ru So ut h A m er ic a 16 14 16 14 A rg en ti na So ut h A m er ic a 18 16 18 16 B ra zi l So ut h A m er ic a 18 16 18 16 C ol om bi a So ut h A m er ic a 18 18 18 18 G uy an a So ut h A m er ic a 18 18 18 18 U ru gu ay So ut h A m er ic a 18 18 21 21 Sr i L an ka So ut hce nt ra l/ So ut hea st er n A si a 18 18 16 12 T ha il an d So ut hce nt ra l/ So ut hea st er n A si a 20 20 17 17 Ph il ip pi ne s So ut hce nt ra l/ So ut hea st er n A si a 18 18 18 18 In do ne si a So ut hce nt ra l/ So ut hea st er n A si a 19 16 19 16 V ie t N am So ut hce nt ra l/ So ut hea st er n A si a 20 18 20 18 L ib er ia W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 16 16 16 16 N ig er ia W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 18 18 16 16 B ur ki na F as o W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 20 17 18 15 G ab on W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 18 15 18 15 G ui ne a W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 18 17 18 17 Se ne ga l W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 20 16 20 16 T og o W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 20 17 20 17 G ha na W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 21 21 21 21 M al i W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 21 18 21 18 Si er r a L eo ne W es te rn /M id dl e A fr ic a 21 18 21 18 SO U R C E : IP PF a nd I W R A W ( 19 90 , 20 00 )
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478 GROWING UP GLOBAL 34The design is a quasi-experiment rather than a true experiment because individuals were not randomly assigned to be in the experimental or control group; assignment was based on geographic area (Campbell and Stanley, 1963)
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 479 In 1994 the government of Bangladesh initiated a scholarship scheme throughout the country for girls enrolled in grades 6 and 9, which was later extended to girls in grades 7 and 8. Provided the girl attends school 65 percent of the time and maintains a certain grade point average, her school is given a certain allotment and she is given a monthly stipend ranging from the equivalent of 1 to 2 U.S.
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480 GROWING UP GLOBAL at this age. Moreover, in certain regions, most notably the Middle East, marriage is postponed until the 30s for a large fraction of men.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 481 There is some evidence of growing agency on the part of young women with regard to marriage. While there are few data sets to assess changes in the spouse selection process, in countries in which information is available and arranged marriage was a standard feature of the marriage process, there appears to be a movement in recent years toward greater involvement by young people in choosing a partner.
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482 GROWING UP GLOBAL 35See http://www.popcouncil.org/rhfp/tostan/tostan.html for a summary of the Tostan program. though the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child does not mention child marriage, it does define childhood as extending up to age 18.
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 483 mutilation on their daughters. Such a model could also be employed to reduce early marriage.
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484 GROWING UP GLOBAL • What is the association between marital status and HIV risk for both men and women? • What are the implications of changing age at marriage and greater autonomy of spousal choice on sexual behavior, both before and after marriage?
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486 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 7-1a Percentage of Women Ever Married, by Age and Time Period Survey Survey Survey Country Year 1 Note Year 2 Note Interval Argentina 1980 1991 * 11 Azerbaijan 1989 [a]
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 487 Continued Ages 15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 Survey Survey Annual Survey Survey Annual Survey Survey Annual 1 2 Change 1 2 Change 1 2 Change n.a.
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488 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 7-1a Continued Survey Survey Survey Country Year 1 Note Year 2 Note Interval Maldives 1985 *
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 489 NOTE: n.a. = not available.
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From page 490... ...
490 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 7-1b Percentage Men Ever Married, by Age and Time Period Survey Survey Survey Country Year 1 Note Year 2 Note Interval Argentina 1980 1991 * 11 Azerbaijan 1989 [a]
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From page 491... ...
THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 491 Continued Ages 15 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 Survey Survey Annual Survey Survey Annual Survey Survey Annual 1 2 Change 1 2 Change 1 2 Change n.a.
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From page 492... ...
492 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 7-1b Continued Survey Survey Survey Country Year 1 Note Year 2 Note Interval Maldives 1985 *
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THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 493 NOTE: n.a. = not available.
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From page 494... ...
494 A PP E N D IX T A B L E 7 -2 Pe rc en ta ge o f W om en E ve r M ar ri ed b y A ge s 18 , 20 , 25 b y A ge a t T im e of S ur ve y in 5 1 D H S C ou nt ri es M ar ri ed b y A ge 1 8 M ar ri ed b y A ge 2 0 M ar ri ed b y A ge 2 5 20 -2 430 -3 440 -4 420 -2 430 -3 440 -4 430 -3 440 -4 4C ou nt ry a nd Y ea r of S ur ve y Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s A rm en ia , 20 00 19 .1 16 .8 11 .9 37 .2 48 .8 38 .9 87 .7 78 .2 B an gl ad es h, 1 99 920 00 65 .3 80 .8 89 .4 75 .4 90 .2 95 .1 98 .1 98 .4 B en in , 19 96 38 .8 46 .9 46 .1 65 .4 67 .8 69 .7 91 .1 95 .3 B ol iv ia , 19 98 21 .2 24 .0 22 .1 38 .5 41 .8 42 .9 76 .2 78 .4 B ra zi l, 1 99 6 23 .7 23 .3 21 .0 38 .8 40 .8 39 .3 75 .1 76 .8 B ur ki na F as o, 1 99 819 99 62 .3 64 .8 64 .0 84 .1 84 .4 87 .5 96 .5 97 .7 C am er oo n, 1 99 8 43 .4 56 .8 60 .8 61 .2 71 .9 76 .7 88 .2 92 .7 C en tr al A fr ic an R ep ub li c, 19 94 -1 99 5 57 .0 57 .0 64 .6 73 .5 75 .4 80 .6 89 .8 91 .0 C ha d, 1 99 619 97 71 .4 71 .1 77 .9 86 .3 84 .9 86 .9 97 .8 97 .0 C ol om bi a, 2 00 0 21 .4 18 .7 24 .4 37 .1 35 .5 39 .7 65 .9 71 .2 C om or os , 19 96 29 .7 47 .4 54 .5 39 .8 61 .8 69 .0 80 .2 90 .1 C ôt e d' Iv oi r e , 19 98 -1 99 9 33 .2 46 .1 49 .7 49 .5 64 .4 66 .1 82 .8 88 .9 D om in ic an R ep ub li c, 1 99 6 37 .6 36 .6 42 .4 53 .4 53 .0 58 .0 81 .8 81 .5 E gy pt , 20 00 19 .5 34 .6 43 .0 35 .9 50 .8 59 .5 81 .7 83 .8 E th io pi a, 1 99 9 49 .1 74 .0 79 .4 64 .7 85 .2 91 .4 94 .9 98 .6 G ha na , 19 98 -1 99 9 35 .5 41 .8 40 .7 56 .4 62 .3 65 .0 88 .5 88 .0 G ua te m al a, 1 99 819 99 34 .3 38 .4 40 .1 55 .5 56 .7 60 .1 86 .1 83 .2 G ui ne a, 1 99 9 64 .5 69 .7 68 .5 78 .8 81 .1 82 .3 94 .5 96 .6 H ai ti , 20 00 24 .1 25 .0 26 .0 43 .0 43 .2 49 .8 74 .7 77 .8 In di a, 1 99 820 00 46 .2 59 .8 63 .1 65 .6 77 .4 80 .8 93 .7 95 .8 In do ne s i a, 1 99 7 29 .6 42 .2 49 .1 47 .0 60 .1 67 .2 84 .6 89 .2 Jo rd an , 19 97 13 .5 20 .1 35 .0 26 .5 35 .0 53 .0 67 .3 83 .3 K az ak hs ta n, 1 99 9 14 .4 6.
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From page 495... ...
495 K en ya , 19 98 24 .6 37 .2 48 .0 46 .1 55 .7 66 .1 82 .5 90 .4 K yr gy z R ep ub li c, 1 99 7 21 .2 10 .4 15 .7 58 .4 40 .2 46 .7 88 .5 91 .6 M ad ag as ca r, 1 99 7 40 .4 40 .4 49 .5 61 .5 57 .9 63 .6 84 .4 86 .0 M al aw i, 2 00 0 46 .9 53 .9 55 .7 72 .9 75 .8 77 .0 94 .7 93 .7 M al i, 2 00 1 65 .4 68 .4 66 .0 80 .9 80 .2 80 .4 93 .8 95 .0 M or oc co , 19 92 18 .4 31 .6 42 .9 31 .4 50 .4 64 .1 75 .1 88 .7 M oz am bi qu e, 1 99 7 56 .6 55 .6 59 .9 77 .8 72 .5 76 .3 90 .6 93 .2 N am ib ia , 19 92 11 .5 14 .7 14 .1 20 .1 24 .7 28 .2 50 .4 53 .3 N ep al , 20 00 -2 00 1 56 .1 65 .5 69 .6 74 .5 82 .3 84 .2 94 .9 96 .3 N ic ar ag ua , 19 97 -1 99 8 50 .3 46 .6 49 .4 65 .6 65 .6 67 .4 87 .4 90 .3 N ig er , 19 98 76 .6 86 .4 89 .1 85 .1 91 .4 95 .5 97 .9 99 .6 N ig er ia , 19 99 39 .6 52 .0 56 .1 52 .7 64 .9 70 .3 86 .3 91 .9 Pa ki st an , 19 90 -1 99 1 31 .6 47 .8 44 .8 48 .9 63 .1 60 .9 87 .7 87 .7 Pa ra gu ay , 19 90 24 .2 23 .5 23 .4 40 .5 43 .1 44 .4 74 .9 74 .3 Pe ru , 20 00 18 .7 22 .7 23 .3 33 .6 38 .0 39 .2 69 .5 70 .1 Ph il ip pi ne s, 1 99 8 14 .6 18 .0 20 .2 27 .5 34 .2 36 .8 68 .3 71 .7 R w an da , 20 00 19 .5 19 .7 21 .5 41 .6 40 .0 45 .0 82 .0 87 .0 Se ne ga l, 1 99 7 36 .1 55 .7 61 .9 50 .6 70 .0 76 .6 87 .5 94 .5 So ut h A fr ic a, 1 99 7 7.
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From page 496... ...
496 A PP E N D IX T A B L E 7 -3 P er ce nt ag e of M en E ve r M ar ri ed b y A ge s 20 , 25 , an d 30 b y A ge a t T im e of S ur ve y in 3 2 D H S C ou nt ri es M ar ri ed b y A ge 2 0 M ar ri ed b y A ge 2 5 M ar ri ed b y A ge 3 0 20 -2 430 -3 440 -4 430 -3 440 -4 430 -3 440 -4 4C ou nt ry a nd Y ea r of S ur ve y Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s A rm en ia , 20 00 5 .0 5 .2 3 .5 52 .3 62 .3 85 .7 86 .6 B en in , 19 96 14 .3 20 .6 21 .5 59 .5 58 .4 85 .2 84 .8 B ol iv ia , 19 98 18 .1 20 .4 19 .2 61 .1 61 .8 82 .5 79 .1 B ra zi l, 1 99 6 13 .7 18 .3 9 .7 59 .0 58 .3 81 .5 86 .9 B ur ki na F as o, 1 99 819 99 9 .3 9 .6 11 .5 48 .1 46 .8 82 .9 76 .6 C am er oo n, 1 99 8 15 .2 13 .1 11 .4 49 .2 52 .4 73 .3 80 .5 C en tr al A fr ic an R ep ub li c, 1 99 419 95 28 .5 28 .9 28 .4 62 .7 57 .5 84 .9 74 .7 C ha d, 1 99 619 97 26 .1 26 .1 26 .1 69 .9 65 .2 92 .5 90 .9 C om or os , 19 96 8 .7 14 .3 13 .0 44 .2 48 .1 74 .0 72 .2 C ôt e d' Iv oi r e , 19 98 -1 99 9 9 .9 11 .0 18 .2 39 .5 54 .1 72 .3 74 .8 D om in ic an R ep ub li c, 1 99 6 18 .6 18 .9 12 .1 56 .3 54 .9 80 .0 77 .1 E th io pi a, 1 99 9 12 .1 20 .1 24 .7 53 .9 56 .4 81 .5 85 .2
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From page 497... ...
497 G ab on , 20 00 21 .5 22 .9 24 .4 57 .6 68 .3 79 .4 85 .1 G ha na , 19 98 -1 99 9 12 .1 18 .4 13 .3 51 .3 48 .7 80 .0 77 .4 G ui ne a, 1 99 9 10 .5 16 .1 8 .7 45 .1 36 .9 69 .7 69 .2 H ai ti , 20 00 15 .8 14 .9 26 .5 44 .8 52 .4 64 .2 78 .1 K az ak hs ta n, 1 99 9 9 .5 7 .9 6 .1 61 .8 67 .9 80 .6 92 .1 K en ya , 19 98 7 .6 11 .6 11 .6 50 .1 59 .1 84 .9 87 .4 M al aw i, 2 00 0 14 .8 23 .3 26 .7 69 .1 72 .6 94 .1 93 .5 M al i, 2 00 1 9 .7 11 .0 4 .4 47 .1 33 .3 78 .1 68 .8 M oz am bi qu e, 1 99 7 30 .8 29 .7 27 .8 72 .7 78 .5 90 .6 90 .7 N ic ar ag ua , 19 97 -1 99 8 38 .7 32 .1 29 .1 71 .6 71 .9 89 .6 88 .1 N ig er , 19 98 21 .0 26 .0 33 .7 64 .8 73 .8 89 .6 90 .6 N ig er ia , 19 99 10 .8 16 .7 19 .5 45 .8 50 .9 76 .7 74 .8 Pe ru , 19 96 14 .7 17 .3 14 .8 56 .3 50 .2 74 .8 79 .1 Se ne ga l, 1 99 7 2 .5 4 .2 7 .8 23 .6 37 .4 50 .1 70 .0 T an za ni a, 1 99 9 12 .2 21 .9 19 .2 60 .1 53 .1 88 .8 86 .9 T og o, 1 99 8 9 .5 18 .4 16 .9 51 .8 53 .5 77 .5 82 .0 T ur ke y, 1 99 8 27 .5 12 .8 25 .8 63 .1 72 .2 92 .6 94 .5 U ga nd a, 2 00 020 01 21 .5 25 .2 26 .9 70 .4 72 .3 92 .5 91 .9 Z am bi a, 1 99 619 97 11 .3 15 .7 20 .3 61 .8 57 .1 86 .4 86 .7 Z im ba bw e, 1 99 9 7 .6 14 .0 14 .1 58 .2 59 .7 88 .1 87 .8
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From page 498... ...
498 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 7-4 Percentage of Women Ages 20-24 Ever Married by Age 18, by Years of Schooling, Household Economic Status, and Rural-Urban Residence in DHS Countries Years of Schooling Country and Year of Survey 0-3 4-7 8+ Armenia, 2000 n.a.
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From page 499... ...
THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 499 Continued Household Economic Status Residence Low Middle High (bottom 40%)
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From page 500... ...
500 GROWING UP GLOBAL Madagascar, 1997 49.7 38.2 19.3 Malawi, 2000 60.7 52.2 18.4 Mali, 2001 71.9 44.5 18.2 Morocco, 1992 25.4 14.2 2.9 Mozambique, 1997 64.5 44.6 8.6 Namibia, 1992 25.8 17.0 2.6 Nepal, 2000-01 68.8 50.3 22.2 Nicaragua, 1997-1998 71.4 64.6 26.3 Niger, 1998 84.7 56.1 15.1 Nigeria, 1999 81.4 33.1 11.2 Pakistan, 1990-1991 n.a.
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From page 502... ...
502 GROWING UP GLOBAL APPENDIX TABLE 7-5 Percentage of Men Ages 20-24 Ever Married by Age 20, by Years of Schooling, Household Eeconomic Status, and Rural-Urban Residence in DHS Countries Years of Schooling Country and Year of Survey 0-3 4-7 8+ Armenia, 2000 n.a.
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From page 503... ...
THE TRANSITION TO MARRIAGE 503 Household Economic Status Residence Low Middle High (bottom 40%)
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From page 504... ...
504 A PP E N D IX T A B L E 7 -6 P er ce nt ag e D is tr ib ut io n of S po us e/ Pa rt ne r A ge D if fe re nc es , A m on g W om en C ur re nt ly i n Fi rs t M ar ri ag e, b y A ge i n 42 D H S C ou nt ri es S po us e/ Pa rt ne r A ge D if fe re nc e 05 Y ea rs 610 Y ea rs 11 + Y ea rs 25 -2 945 -4 925 -2 945 -4 925 -2 945 -4 9C ou nt ry a nd Y ea r of S ur ve y Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s Y ea rO ld s A rm en ia , 20 00 55 .0 70 .7 36 .4 20 .5 8.
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From page 505... ...
505 G ui ne a, 1 99 9 13 .4 15 .6 30 .0 26 .1 56 .6 58 .3 H ai ti , 20 00 50 .2 62 .1 30 .1 24 .8 19 .7 13 .1 In di a, 1 99 820 00 53 .8 52 .6 35 .2 30 .2 10 .9 17 .2 Jo rd an , 19 97 57 .0 41 .1 32 .6 38 .2 10 .4 20 .7 K az ak hs ta n, 1 99 9 83 .0 85 .3 14 .9 9.
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Key Terms
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