Improving School Bus Safety Special Report 222 (1989) / Chapter Skim
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Committee To Identify Measures That May Improve the Safety of r School Bus Transportation CHARLEY V Wo0TAN, Chairman, Texas Transportation Institute, College Station PHYLLIS F
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Preface School bus safety is a serious and sometimes controversial issue. The public expects that school districts and other school bus operators will take all reasonable precautions to protect children as they travel to and from school.
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vi of school bus transportation. For selected measures approximate safety costeffectiveness comparisons were developed.
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vu of Pupil Transportation Services; Richard Kuykendall, 3M, Inc.; John Atkinson, Insta Products, Inc.; and William Gardner, Transport Canada. The study was performed under the overall supervision of Robert E
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Contents Executive Summary . 1 1 Introduction .............................................9 Legislative History, 10 Seat Belts on School Buses, 12 Additional Measures To Enhance School Bus Safety, 15 Definitions, 15 Procedure, 16 2 School Bus Transportation in the United States .........................................21 Pupil Transportation, 21 School Bus Fleet Size, 23 Development of the School Bus, 25 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards, 27 Summary, 29 3 Frequency and Characteristics of School Bus Accidents .................................31 Fatal Accidents, 31 Accidents Resulting in Injuries, 46 Summary, 57 4 Measures To Enhance the Safety of SchoolBus Passengers ................................
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5 Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents .................................105 Behavioral Measures To Prevent Pedestrian Accidents, 105 Physical Measures To Prevent Pedestrian Accidents, 116 School Bus Routes and Stops, 128 Summary, 129 6 Cost-Effectiveness of School Bus Safety Measures ........133 Target Populations, 134 Effectiveness Estimates, 136 Seat Belts, 137 Higher Seat Backs, 137 School Bus Monitors, 138 Crossing Control Arms, 138 Electronic Sensors, 138 Mechanical Sensors, 139 Stop Signal Arms, 139 External Loud Speaker Systems, 140 Pupil Education Programs, 141 Summary, 141 7 Conclusions and Recommendations .....................147 School Bus Passenger Protection, 147 Protecting Children as They Board and Leave School Buses, 153 School Bus Standardization, 157 School Bus Accident Data, 158 Appendix A School Bus Accidents ........................ 159 Appendix B Fatal School Bus Accident Narratives ..........
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Executive Summary Each year in the United States 10 children on average are killed while riding to and from school or school-sponsored activities in large, "Type I" school buses -- buses with gross vehicle weight ratings (GVWRs) greater than 10,000 lb -- which make up 80 to 85 percent of the nation's school bus fleet.
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2 IMPROvING SchooL Bus SAFETY Other individuals and organizations, however, argue that seat belts are warranted on all school buses and that they should be installed at the time of manufacture. In the last several years a number of school districts, and one state (New York)
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Executive Summary 3 States and local school districts that choose to require seat belts in buses must ensure that all school bus passengers wear them and wear them correctly. Any program to require the use of seat belts on school buses can be effective only if it has the support of the school board, school administrators, teachers, parents, and school bus drivers.
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IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SA1rY In addition to the standard lap belts that are currently being used in school buses in a number of school districts in the United States, three other seat and restraint systems were considered: lap bars, lap and shoulder belts, and highbacked rear-facing seats with lap belts. It is too soon to recommend any of these systems for general use; additional research and testing are needed.
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Executive Summary 5 Measures To Improve the Safety of Children in School Bus Loading Zones School bus accident data show that children are at a greater risk of being killed as pedestrians in school bus loading zones than as passengers on school buses. Of the 38 children killed each year in loading zones around school buses, twothirds are struck by school buses.
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IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY current specifications for mirrors can be modified to give the driver a better view of the area in front of and immediately beside the bus. Other measures to prevent children from being struck by their own school buses are in various stages of development.
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Executive Summary 7 Notes The term serious injury as used in this report refers to "incapacitating" injuries that range from severe lacerations or broken limbs to quadriplegia or coma (see Chapter 3)
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IIntroduction SCHOOL BUSES IN THE United States travel nearly 4 billion mi each year to transport approximately 25 million children to and from school or various school-sponsored activities. In a typical year, 10 students are killed while riding in Type I school buses with gross vehicle weight ratings (GVWRs)
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10 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY conduct a comprehensive study and investigation of the principal causes of fatalities and injuries to school children riding in school buses and of the use of seat belts in school buses and other measures that may improve the safety of school bus transportation. The purpose of the study and investigation is to determine those safety measures that are most effective in protecting the safety of school children while boarding, leaving, and riding in school buses.
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Introduction 11 [Public Law 100-17, 206(a) (April 2, 1987)
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12 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus Siissry FMVSS 301, Fuel System Integrity, revised to address the fuel systems on all school buses, including buses with GVWRs greater than 10,000 lb (April 1, 1977)
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Introduction 13 the occupant protection required in school buses manufactured after April 1, 1977, plus the inherent safety of a highly recognizable vehicle that travels on a regular route, provide a high level of safety. In view of the effectiveness of the current safety standards, and the excellent safety record of school buses generally, we do not believe that a Federal requirement for safety belts in large school buses is warranted.
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14 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY Society for Adolescent Medicine (SAM 1985) , and American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP 1987)
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Introduction 15 Additional Measures To Enhance School Bus Safety Although installation of seat belts is the measure most discussed to enhance school bus safety, a variety of other programs and devices were proposed and reviewed during this study. These programs and devices fall into two groups: (a)
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16 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SArsrY school district served by the bus. Vehicles that are structurally recognizable as school buses, as well as other vehicles, such as vans and station wagons, may be classified as school buses.
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Introduction 17 Accident Reporting System (FARS) were analyzed for a 5-year period (1982-1986)
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18 IMPRovING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY S This definition of a Type I bus differs from the definition in HSPS 17, which states that Type I buses are vehicles capable of carrying more than 16 people.
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Introduction 19 NTSB.
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2 School Bus Transportation in the United States THE HISTORY OF PUPIL transportation in the United States, the evolution of the modem school bus from a horse-drawn wagon, the size of the nation's school bus fleet, and the development of minimum safety standards for the manufacture of school buses are reviewed in this chapter. Pupil Transportation In 1869 the Commonwealth of Massachusetts passed the first legislation in the United States allowing the use of public funds for transporting school children (Noble 1940, 2)
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22 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus SArIrrY attendance became compulsory. With state and local government involvement in public education, and with the concept of compulsory school attendance well established, the consolidation of public schools to reduce public expenditures and to enhance the quality of education followed.
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45 40 35 15 10 5 School Bus Transportation in the United States 23 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 YEAR FIGURE 2-1 Students transported at public expense in the United States: 1930-1985 (OERI 1987)
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24 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus SAntrY TABLE 2-1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACED STREETS AND HIGHWAYS AND MOTOR VEHICLE REGISTRATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES (1900-1985) Year Surfaced Streets and Roadsa (thousands of miles)
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School Bus Transportation in the United States 25 TABLE 2-2 VEHICLES USED FOR TRANSPORTING STUDENTS AT PUBLIC EXPENSE School Year Students Transported at Public Expense° Vehicles Used 1929-1930 1,902,826 58,016 1933-1934 2,794,724 77,042 1937-1938 3,769,242 92,152 1941-1942 4,503,081 92,516 1945-1946 5,056,966 89,299 1949-1950 6,947,384 115,202 1953-1954 8,411,719 147,425 1957-1958 10,861,689 170,689 1961-1962 13,222,667 191,1606 1965-1966 15,536,567 NA 1969-1970 18,752,735 239,973 1973-1974 21,169,633 271,552 1977-1978 21,923,780 315,489 1981-1982 22,836,272 335,160 1985-1986 21,945,021 338,854 Nors: NA indicates not available.
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26 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus Srrry safety; for example, canvas tarpaulins drawn over frames of wooden stays were provided to afford some protection from the elements; stoves were added for warmth during cold weather. By World War I motorized trucks were beginning to replace farm wagons as the base structure on which to build school vehicles.
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School Bus Transportation in the United States 27 chassis standards covered items such as axles, batteries, brakes, bumpers, frames, gasoline tanks, tires, and weight distribution. The 27 recommended body standards addressed aisle widths, ceiling heights, door specifications, lights, mirrors, seat spacings, and so forth (Noble 1940, 288-312)
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TABLE 2-3 FEDERAL MOTOR VEffiCLE SAFETY STANDARDS THAT APPLY TO SCHOOL BUSES (SBMI 1985, Appendix A)
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School Bus Transportation in the United States 29 Summary School bus transportation in the United States grew dramatically during this century as public school consolidation increased, hard surfaced, allweather roads were constructed, and motor vehicles replaced horse-drawn wagons and carriages. By 1930, 58,000 motor vehicles were used to transport school children at public expense.
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30 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY References ABBREVIATIONS FHWA Federal Highway Administration MVMA Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association NSBSC National School Bus Standards Conference NTSB National Transportation Safety Board OERI Office of Educational Research and Improvement SBMI School Bus Manufacturers Institute Farmer, E (forthcoming)
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Frequency and Characteristics of School Bus Accidents SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENT FATALITIES and injuries are described in this chapter. The first section focuses on analysis of fatal school bus accidents from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's (NHTSA)
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32 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SArirrv because they were the most current available at the time of the analysis. In addition, the committee reviewed police narratives of fatal accidents from three states (California, Michigan, and Pennsylvania)
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34 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY TABLE 3-1 SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENT FATALITIES.
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Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 35 TABLE 3-2 ESTIMATED ANNUAL SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENT FATALiTIES (FARS 1982-1986) Vehicle Type Vehicles Persons Used as Fatally School School Other Injured Busesa Busesb Vehicles Total Drivers 1.6 0.8 62.6 65.0 Pedestrians StudentsC 24.0 1.8 11.6 37.4 Adultsd 4.4 1.0 1.8 7.2 Passengers Students 9.6 2.4 8.0 20.0 Adults 2.4 0.6 11.6 14.6 Bicyclists Students 1.8 0.4 1.0 3.2 Adults 1.2 02 0.2 1.6 45.0 7.2 96.8 149.0 Noms: Average values derived from 5 years of fatal accident data.
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36 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus Sirirrv TABLE 3-3 STUDENT PEDESTRIANS KILLED IN SCHOOL BUS ACCIDEN1'S, TOTAL 1982-1986 (FARS 1982-1986) Striking Vehicle Vehicles Used as School School Other Day Busesa Busesb Vehicles Total Sunday 0 0 0 '0 Monday 18 1 16 35 Tuesday 26 2 13 41 Wednesday 17 4 10 31 Thursday 27 2 8 37 Friday 31 0 11 42 Saturday 1 0 0 1 120 9 58 187 Nore: Students are defined as persons under 20 years old.
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TABLE 3-4 STUDENT PEDESTRIANS KILLED IN SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS BY TIME OF DAY, TOTAL 1982-1986 (FARS 1982-1986) Fatalities Time Frequency Percent 6:00 a.m.-6:59 a.m.
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35 30 25 is 10 5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20+ AGE 38 - IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY FIGURE 3-2 Age distribution of pedestrians fatally injured by school buses (FARS 1982-1986)
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Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 39 15 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20+ AGE FIGURE 3-3 Age distribution of pedestrians fatally injured by other vehicles (FARS 1982-1986)
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40 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY TABLE 3-6 OTHER VEHICLES THAT STRUCK AND KILLED STUDENT PEDESTRIANS, TOTAL 1982-1986 (FARS 1982-1986)
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15 5 Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 41 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20+ AGE FIGURE 3-4 Passengers fatally injured in Type I school buses (FARS 1982-1986)
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TABLE 3-8 ACCIDENTS THAT RESULTED IN SCHOOL BUS PASSENGER FATALiTIES BY TIME OF DAY, TOTAL 1982-1986 (FARS 1982-1986) Time Accidents Fatalities 6:00 a.m.-6:59 a.m.
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TABLE 3-10 ACCIDENTS THAT RESULTED IN SCHOOL BUS PASSENGER FATALiTIES BY FIRST HARMFUL EVENT, TOTAL 1982-1986 (FARS 1982-1986) First Harmful Event School Bus Overturned Yes No Total Collision with Other vehicle in traffic 6 (12)
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44 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SArarY bus drivers involved in fatal single-vehicle accidents were involved in more accidents in the 3 years before the accident occurred than were school bus drivers involved in multivehicle accidents. For multivehicle accidents, drivers of other vehicles were more likely than school bus drivers to have been involved in other accidents during the 3 years before their fatal school bus accident.
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Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 45 TABLE 3-13 PREVIOUS ACCIDENTS FOR DRIVERS INVOLVED IN FATAL SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS, 1982-1986 (FARS 1982-1986) Single-Vehicle Accidents (%)
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46 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFErY TABLE 3-15 DWI CONVICFIONS FOR DR1VERS INVOLVED IN FATAL SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS, 1982-1986 (FARS 1982-1986) Single-Vehicle Accidents (%)
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Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 47 TABLE 3-16 SPEEDING CONVICTIONS FOR DRIVERS INVOLVED IN FATAL SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS.
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48 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SpFry Injury Rates Based on Data from 14 States 4,713 x 10 persons injured per mile of school bus service 4.976 x 10 2 persons injured per school bus 7.230 x 10 persons injured per pupil transported National Estimates National Estimates of Exposure of Persons Injured 3.8 x 109 miles of 17,909 school bus service 3.9 x 10 school 19,406 buses 2.5 x 107 pupils 18,075 transported The three estimates are consistent, and the committee used the higher figure rounded to 19,000 as its estimate of the number of persons injured in school bus-related accidents in the United States each year. The higher figure was selected in order to be conservative, that is, to reduce the possibility of underestimating the number of school bus accident injuries.
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Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 49 TABLE 3-18 NUMBER OF PERSONS INJURED IN SCHOOL BUS-RELATED ACCIDENTS BY ROLE 114 ACCIDENT FOR SELECTED STATES Role in Accident (%) School Total Bus School Bus All State Drivers Passengers Pedestrians Others Percent Frequency Delawar& 6.6 68.7 NA 24.7' 100.0 457 Maiylandc 11.2 60.1 4.8 23.9 100.0 1,850 Texasd 6.5 42.7 4.9 45.9 100.0 7,662 Oregonc 8.6 36.3 10.9 44.2 100.0 256 Kentuckye 7.6 68.2 2.9 21.3 100.0 1,024 North CarolinaC 6.5 62.0 0.9 30.6 100.0 6,427 New Yorkd 10.1 52.0 3.0 34.9 100.0 13,026 Louisianac 5.9 NA 77.21 16.9 100.0 1,380 flhinois8 10.3 40.0 3.3 46.4 100.0 5,195 Michiganh 8.1 20.7 6.1 65.1 100.0 3,293 National estimatet 10.0 50.0 5.0 35.0 100.0 Nom: NA indicates data not available.
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TABLE 3-19 SCHOOL BUS PASSENGERS INJURED IN SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS BY SELECTED STATES • State (%)
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Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 51 Michigan, New York, and Texas. Students are defined as persons under 20 years old.
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52 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SArsrv TABLE 3-21 PEDESTRIANS INJURED IN SCHOOL BUS-RELATED ACCIDENTS BY VEHICLE TYPE FOR SELECTED STATES State (%) North National Pedestrians Michigana Carolinab Texasc Estimate Struck by (N=201)
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FIGURE 3-5 Annual fatalities and injuries in school bus a&idents. FataHties 121 15 26 112 j Il 87 I
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54 Iiiaovmc SCHOOL Bus SAFETY Exclusion: Momentary unconsciousness; and others. Level B: Nonincapacitating evident injury.
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TABLE 3-23 POLICE-REPORTED INJURIES SUSTAINED BY PASSENGERS IN SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS IN NEW YORK (1980-1986) Injury Severity (%)
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TABLE 3-24 POLICE-REPORTED INJURIES SUSTAINED BY PEDESTRIANS GOING TO AND FROM STOPPED SCHOOL BUSES IN NEW YORK (1980-1986) Injury Severity (%)
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Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 57 percent suffered some form of traumatic amputation. More than 5 percent of the victims were unconscious.
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58 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus Srgrv TABLE 3-25 ESTIMATED ANNUAL STUDENT FATALiTIES IN SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS (summarized from Table 3-2) Fatalities School Bus Passengers School busesa 9.6 Vehicles used as school busesb 24 12.0 Pedestrians Struck by school busa 24.0 Struck by vehicle used as school busb 1.8 Struck by other vehicle 11.6 37.4 Nom: Students defined as persons under 20 years old.
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Characteristics of School Bus Accidents 59 Values of 30 (school bus) for variable V18 (body type)
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Measures To Enhance the Safety of School Bus Passengers ON AVERAGE, 12 CHILDREN are killed and another 9,500 are injured each year while riding as passengers in school buses or vehicles operated as school buses. To reduce the number of fatalities and injuries that occur each year, a number of safety measures have been devised, and many have been implemented.
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62 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAnrrY studies of the effectiveness of seat belts in the rear seats of automobiles, fullscale school bus crash tests, sled tests, and analyses of school bus accident data. In addition, data from three surveys on seat belt use in Type I school buses that are equipped with seat belts are reviewed and discussed.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 63 structures crush. Restraints not only allow the occupant to decelerate more slowly than padding allows, but they also reduce collisions among occupants, effectively distribute impact loads over the body, and provide significant control over occupants' motions during the wide range of impacts that can occur.
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64 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY Finally, FMVSS 222 (School Bus Passenger Seating and Crash Protection)
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School Bus Passenger Safety 65 prescribed procedure, the seat back must not deform more than 14 in. or so much that the loaded seat fails to return to within 4 in.
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66 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus SAFETY Seat Belts (Lap Belts) Seat belts are not a new safety device; they were first used in buggies before 1900 and in automobiles by the late 1940s.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 67 school buses have a distinct advantage over passenger cars in most traffic accidents, particularly multivehicle accidents involving passenger cars. In addition, along the routes that most school buses travel, buses are exposed to less hostile traffic and environmental conditions than are passenger cars.
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68 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus SArirrY investigations of 26 frontal collisions that Campbell suggests are atypically severe. The differences in the estimates of lap belt effectiveness provided in the previous three studies cannot be resolved without further research.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 69 Restraints. Conditions included no belts, lap belts, three-point harnesses, preinflated air bags, and restraint bars.
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70 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SArsrY For buses provided with safety seats having a performance profile comparable to the UCLA design, seat belts will contribute a significant measure of safety, especially during severe upset collision exposures. However, when safety seats are used, the authors regard further restraint measures, such as installation of safety belts, of minor importance, because of the special protection afforded to school buses by their size and conspicuity.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 71 TABLE 4-1 SEATING POSiTIONS AND INSTRUMENTATION FOR ANTHROPOMORPHIC DUMMIES USED IN THE TRANSPORT CANADA CRASH TEST Seatm g Position Accelerometers FemurLod Instrumenteda Rowb Side Lap Belt Head Chest Cells Yes 1 Left No Yes Yes No Yes 1 Right Yes Yes Yes No Yes 6 Left Yes Yes Yes No Yes 6 Right No Yes Yes Yes Yes 11 Left No Yes Yes Yes Yes 11 Right Yes Yes Yes Yes No 5 Left No No No No No 5 Left No No No No 0A11 insinimented dummies were fifth-percentile females. Fhere were 11 rows of seats in the bus.
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72 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus Siury TABLE 4-2 RESULTS OF A FRONTAL CRASH TEST ON A 25,000-LB (GVWR) SCHOOL BUS Seat Seatmg Position .
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School Bus Passenger Safety 73 In a critique of this study Weber and Melvin question "the test procedures, the dummies, the significance of the measurements taken, and the validity of the judgements made.
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74 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAWrY In 1978 NHTSA conducted a series of sled tests to simulate the dynamics of school buses involved in frontal collisions (Bayer 1978)
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TABLE 4-3 SLED TESTS OF BELTED AND UNBELTED DUMMIES IN STANDARD SCHOOL BUS SEATS AT 20-IN. SPACINGS (Bayer 1978, 2-74, 2-76)
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76 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SArIrrv As the school bus attempted to make a left turn, it was struck on the left side by a dump truck. The bus, a 1981 model, was overturned by the impact of the dump truck.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 77 FIGURE 4-3 Seating positions and seat belt status of 23 school bus passengers involved in an accident in Danbury, Connecticut, September 14, 1987. [Data provided by Walter E
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TABLE 4-4 INJURIES SUSTAINED BY SCHOOL BUS PASSENGERS IN DANBURY, CONNECTICUT, ACCIDENT Belt Seating Date Returned to Status Position Description of Injuries School Belted A Neck strain, right shoulder strain, glass imbedded in right palm. September 21, 1987 B Head and neck discomfort, bruise on right shoulder, glasses broken.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 79 acknowledge that accident data taken from police reports lack the detail necessary to make such estimates. Police officers' narratives and adcJitional information on the 13 accidents reviewed by Hatfield and Womack are given in Appendix D
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80 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SArErY Finally, commenting on Accident 12 (Appendix D) , Kyser again rejects the assumption that seat belts might have been advantageous: In discussion with those who actually investigated this accident, plus viewing the physical evidence; I would suggest that the massive compacting of the side and roof into the passenger compartment was the cause of death.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 81 TABLE 4-5 INJURIES (INCLUDING FATAL INJURIES) SUSTAINED BY SCHOOL BUS PASSENGERS AND DRIVERS Type of Accident Nonrollover Rollover Front or Noncol- Injury Severitya Rear Side Multiple Collision lision Drivers Uninjurd 333 125 6 53 46 13 AIS 1 minor 142 12 46 156 133 21 AIS 2 moderate 11 1 11 19 16 5 AIS 3 serious 4 0 1 17 2 3 (1)
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82 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY TABLE 4-6 ESTIMATED EFFECfS OF SEAT BELTS ON THE SEVERITY OF INJURIES SUSTAINED BY UNRESTRAINED SCHOOL BUS PASSENGERS (NTSB 1987, 78) Estimated Effect of Seat Belts Reduced No Worsened Undeter- Injury Severity Severity Effect Severity mined Total AIS4,severe 1 2 1 0 4 MS 3, serious 8 12 1 3 24 AIS 2, moderate 0 0 12 46 58 9 14 14 49 86 Nom: Only injured survivors are included.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 83 The crash tests and sled tests reviewed by the committee did not suggest that seat belts (lap belts) would or would not be effective in frontal collisions.
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84 IMPROVINC SCHOOL Bus Siuirr Transportation Research Board Survey A survey that posed similar questions was sent in Fall 1987 to 24 school districts in the United States that have operated Type I school buses equipped with lap belts. Of the 16 districts that responded, most were pleased with their seat belt programs; a few were not.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 85 student behavior, some belts have been vandalized. However, fewer than 3 percent of the 1,800 to 1,950 seat belts in the fleet have been vandalized.17 West Orange, New Jersey The Board of Education for West Orange, New Jersey, schools contracts for pupil transportation services.
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86 IMPROVING SchooL Bus SAFETY behavioral observations, the researchers reached the following conclusions about seat belt use on belt-equipped buses (Gardner et al.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 87 New York Association for Pupil Transportation Survey In March 1988, the New York Association for Pupil Transportation published the results of a survey of 771 school districts in the state of New York. The association received 502 (65 percent)
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88 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAIrv is loaded by the passengers, the seat back is pushed forward, thus reducing or possibly eliminating the contact forces between the passengers' heads and the seat back in front of them. Proponents of lap bars also claim that this restraint system would be more likely to be used than seat belts, because it would be visible to the driver in the up or nonuse position.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 89 TABLE 4-7 SEAT AND RESTRAINT COMBINATIONS USED IN THE TRANSPORT CANADA TEST SERIES Type of Seat Conditiona Seat Belt Facing Seat Structure 1 Lap Forward Standard 2 Lap Forward Tops of the seats were fitted with additional energy-absorbing foam 3 Lap Forward Horizontal bars framing the tops of the seat backs were weakened so that they would deform on impact 4 Three-point Forward Structural strength of the seats was enhanced to carry the additional load from the upper torso 5 Muhipoint Forward Structural strength of the seats was enhanced to carry the additional load from the upper torso 6 Lap Rearward Height of the seat backs was increased by approximately 10 in. 0Condftjon 1 was used as the baseline.
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90 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFErY It must be emphasized that if seats with lap and shoulder belts are installed in buses, it is imperative that the belts be worn at all times. Otherwise, any injuries due to unrestrained occupants striking the seat back would be more severe than with an existing seat due to the increased seat rigidity.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 91 the Canadian results appear to be promising, additional field testing and evaluation should be conducted in the United States. Seat Back Height and Spacing Current federal standards require that the backs of school bus seats be at least 20 in.
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92 IMPROVING SchooL Bus SAIErv The effects of seat back height were found to be not particularly significant in frontal impacts, accept [except] in aggravating the "standing up" problem, which in turn is caused by improper phasing.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 93 seats provided by school bus manufacturers were mounted on a sled. Three seats were mounted to a sled: two 50th-percentile male dummies were seated in the center seat; a dummy representing a 6-year-old was seated in the rear seat.
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94 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SArirrv emphasizes that any attempt to characterize the safety of school bus seats by a single factor (e.g., seat back height or seat spacing) is overly simplistic.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 95 passenger compartment (e.g., cases 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 19, 20, 21, and 25)
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96 IMPRoVING SCHOOL Bus SAlrY of readily accessible emergency egress" (49 CFR 571.217)
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School Bus Passenger Safety 97 to the fuel system such that no more than 5 oz of fuel spills during the first 5 min following impact. To meet this requirement, manufacturers of the truck chassis on which Type I school buses are built have surrounded the fuel tanks with structural cages.
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98 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY that, when ignited, the materials used in school bus interiors (e.g., seat cushions, seat backs, floor coverings) must not spread a flame beyond a prescribed rate.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 99 seat cushioning or padding in airplanes to be constructed from conventional polyurethane foam. However, under FAA regulations, flammable seat cushion foam must be covered by a fire-blocking upholstery that retards the spread of flames, as defined in standardized test procedures (14 CFR 25.853)
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100 IMPROVING ScIooL Bus SAFETY School bus passenger injuries and fatalities are most common when the bus is involved in a frontal collision. Because of this the Canadian government has experimented with rear-facing school bus seats to better distribute the load on school bus passengers involved in such collisions.
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School Bus Passenger Safety 101 energy-absorbing properties, at a reasonable cost. Developments in this area should be continually monitored to identify materials for potential school bus use.
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From page 109... ...
102 IMPROVING SchooL Bus SAFETY Letter from C Frank Dixon, Jr., Director of Transportation Services, Fairfax County (Vuinia)
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From page 110... ...
School Bus Passenger Safety 103 References ABBREVIATIONS AAAM Association for Advancement of Automotive Medicine NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NMAB National Materials Advisory Board NSBTA National School Bus Transportation Association NTSB National Transportation Safety Board UMTA Urban Mass Transportation Administration AAAM, September 30, 1987, Head Injury Mechanism, Symposium Report, New Orleans, La., p.
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From page 111... ...
104 IMPROVING ScitooL Bus SAPEry NHTSA.
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From page 112... ...
5 Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents EACH YEAR IN THE United States 45 pedestrians, on average, are killed in school bus -- related accidents; 38 of these pedestrians are children most often killed boarding or leaving buses in school bus loading zones. In addition to the children killed in loading zones (KDOT 1986)
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From page 113... ...
106 IMPRovING SchooL Bus Sry Selection and Training of School Bus Drivers In 1969 the National Highway Traffic Administration (NHTSA) initiated a study on the selection and training of school bus drivers.
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From page 114... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 107 potential instructors in teaching methodology pertinent to the curriculum package" (Cleven and Fucigna 1975)
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From page 115... ...
TABLE 5-1 SCHOOL BUS DRIVER REQUIREMENTS IN 41 OF THE 50 STATES State License Alabama Regular license; special license annually; written and road tests; TB exam every 3 yr. Alaska Regular license for at least 1 yr; annual DPS permit; written and road tests; annual physical exam; minimum age 19; good driving record.
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From page 116... ...
TABLE 5-1 continued License Chauffeur's license; state bus driver certificate. Chauffeur's license; bus driver permit; annual physical exam; age 18 to 69 Chauffeur's license; bus driver certificate; road and written tests; driver and criminal record checks; physical and psychological exams; age 21 to 55.
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From page 117... ...
TABLE 5-1 continued State New Hampshire New Jersey New York Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota License Regular license; bus driver certificate; minimum age 18; English-speaking written test; criminal and driving record check. Regular license; certificate every 2 yr; 3 yr driving experience; minimum age 18; physical exam; written and road tests; driving record check.
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From page 118... ...
State License Tennessee Special chauffeur's license with endorsement; 5 yr driving experience; annual physical exam; over 55, semiannual physical. Texas Chauffeur's license; 3-yr bus certificate; annual physical exam; minimum age 18.
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From page 119... ...
112 IMPROVING ScJtooL Bus SAPZrY Safe walking practices to and from bus stops, How and where to wait safely for the bus, and How to board and leave the bus. Figures 5-1 and 5-2 show the procedures recommended by NSBSC for boarding and leaving school buses (NSBSC 1985, 99-100)
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From page 120... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 113 WHEN LEAVING YOUR BUS: Here's How to Cross the Road SAFELY WALK - along the side of the road until you can see your driver STOP - wait for the signal to cross WALK & LOOK - for traffic both ways - if you see a vehicle that has not stopped, go back to the bus immediately - if all vehicles have stopped, cross the road quickly WALK & 'LOOK - Crossing the Highway is DANGEROUS (.WALK REMEMBER <.STOP t• WALK& LOOK Drivers SHOULD stop ...
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From page 121... ...
114 IMPROVING ScI400L Bus SAnrrv The portion of the curriculum that addresses school bus and pedestrian accidents is limited to grades K through 6 and is taught both in the classroom and on the bus. Classroom instruction involves the use of movies (Willy Whistle)
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From page 122... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 115 Pupil Supervision To many the belief that student behavior can be modified through classroom instruction is little more than wishful thinking. Instead they advocate putting monitors on school buses to ensure appropriate behavior.
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From page 123... ...
116 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus SAFErY 60 50 40 (0 w 30 ILL 20 10 Total Fatalities Pedestrian Fatalities NY CA TX NC FL MI PA IL OH AK MO FIGURE 5-3 School bus accident fatalities (total fatalities and pedestrian fatalities) for 11 states (FARS 1982-1986)
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From page 124... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 117 prevent pedestrians from being struck by other vehicles, and (b) devices to prevent pedestrians from being struck by school buses.
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From page 125... ...
118 IMPROVING ScJlooL Bus SAFETY stopping) and that they are also obliged to stop, as required by law in most states.
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From page 126... ...
i -- Amber Running Lights Amber Warning Lights - Red Loading Lights Amber Turn Signal and Hazard Flashers Loading Mirror Red Identification Lights Amber Warning Lights c- Red Loading Lights Red Identification Lights L ] [ a White Backup Lights Red Brake Lights I pOol IcC5O1 Red Turn Signal __________ and Hazard Flashers J L 1 Red Brake Lights Red Reflectors _______ jj FIGURE 5-4 School bus lighting configurations (Bracken et al.
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From page 127... ...
120 IMPRovING ScHooL Bus SAl IffY FIGURE 5-5 School bus equipped with stop control arm.
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From page 128... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 121 TABLE 5-3 EVALUATION OF STOP SIGNAL ARMS (Brackett et al. 1984, School Bus Safety, 12)
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From page 129... ...
122 IMPROVING Scs400L Bus SAFETY TABLE 5-4 EFFECF1VENESS OF STOP SIGNAL ARMS MODIFIED WITH STROBE LIGHTS No. of Vehicles Passing School Bus lllegallya Buses with standard stop signal arms Busi 68 Bus2 41 Total 109 Buses with stop signal arms and strobe lights Bus3 7 Bus4 1 Total 8 Nom: Data provided by Carlisle Beasley, Director of Transportation, Metropolitan Public Schools, Nashville, Tennessee.
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From page 130... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 123 which stopped school buses were illegally passed. Field observations indicated that on a typical school day each bus operating in the Houston Independent School District was illegally passed an average of 8.33 times.
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From page 131... ...
124 IMPRoVING Sd-tooL Bus SuErY students outside of the bus and verbally inform them when it is safe to cross the street. It has been argued that this system is more flexible and, hence, safer than other nonverbal forms of communication between the driver and student.
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From page 132... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 125 Pedestrians Struck by School Buses Two-thirds of all children killed in school bus and pedestrian accidents are struck by school buses or vehicles used as school buses (Table 3-25, Chapter 3)
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From page 133... ...
126 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus SAFETY FIGURE 5-7 Cross-view mirrors are standard equipment on school buses. The required cross-view mirror may provide the driver a better view of children in front of the bus (e.g., students who fall down or who stoop to pick up an object while crossing the street)
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From page 134... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 127 an object is detected near the bus as it pulls away from a stop, an alarm is sounded to warn the driver of the potential danger. As an alternative to electronic systems, another company is marketing a mechanical system that will stop the school bus automatically when objects are detected beneath the wheels.
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From page 135... ...
r 128 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAnITY FIGURE 5-8 Crossing control arm mounted on front bumper of school bus (in open position)
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From page 136... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 129 Summary Each year 38 children are killed and another 800 are injured in school bus loading zones. Approximately two-thirds of these children are killed by school buses, or vehicles used as school buses, and one-third are killed by other vehicles.
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From page 137... ...
130 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus SAFETY intended to reduce the number of accidents involving children being struck by their own bus. Although all of the physical devices to reduce pedestrian accidents reviewed in this chapter have been installed on operational school buses, the degree to which any of these devices will reduce the number of pedestrian accidents, and the deaths and injuries that result from these accidents, is not well known.
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From page 138... ...
Measures To Prevent School Bus and Pedestrian Accidents 131 References ABBREVIATIONS KDOT Kansas Department of Transportation NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NSBSC National School Bus Standards Conference NSC National Safety Council Bracken, R
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From page 139... ...
132 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAFETY N}ITSA.
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From page 140... ...
6 Cost-Effectiveness of School Bus Safety Measures A NUIv1BER OF MEASURES to enhance school bus safety have been reviewed in the previous two chapters. Safety programs and devices designed to reduce passenger deaths and injuries are reviewed in Chapter 4; and safety programs and devices intended to protect children as they board or leave school buses are reviewed in Chapter 5.
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From page 141... ...
134 IMPROVING SchooL Bus SAlrY expected. For example, how much would it cost to equip and maintain all school buses in the United States with seat belts, and what would be the expected reductions in the numbers of deaths and injuries?
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From page 142... ...
TABLE 6-1 TARGET POPULATIONS OF FATALiTIES AND INJURIES ADDRESSED Safety Measures Target Population (Student) Annual Pupil Fatalities Annual Pupil Injunes Incapacitating Nonincapacitating Possible Seat belts Passengers in Type I buses 10 475 2,375 6,650 Higher seat backs Passengers 12 475 2,375 6,650 School bus monitors Passengers and pedestrians 50 637 2,618 7,053 Crossing control arms Pedestrians struck by the fronts of school 16 37 57 95 busesa Electronic sensors Pedestrians struck by school buses 24 57 85 141 Mechanical sensors Pedestrians struck by school buses 24 57 85 141 Stop signal arms Pedestrians struck by other vehiclesb 5 46 70 115 External loud speaker Pedestrians struck by other vehicles 12 105 158 262 systems Pupil education programs PedestriansC 31 139 209 347 Nom: The fatalities and injuries shown are esTimates from Table 3-10 and Figure 3-9 in Chapter 3.
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From page 143... ...
136 IMPROVING ScisooL Bus SAmrrY measures considered are the same, those measures designed to reduce or prevent pedestrian fatalities are better safety investments than measures designed to prevent passenger fatalities. Although pedestrian fatalities are more common than passenger fatalities, the reverse is true for injuries.
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From page 144... ...
Cost-Effectiveness of School BusSafety Measures 137 Seat Belts Manufacturers estimate that equipping a typical, 66-passenger, Type I school bus with seat belts at the factory adds about $900 to $1,500 to the cost of the bus,2 and discussions with manufacturers and school bus operators indicate that annual seat belt maintenance costs are roughly $30 to $35 per bus each year. Assuming an average initial cost per bus of $990 and an annual maintenance cost of $33 per bus, 7,789 Type I school buses could be equipped and maintained with seat belts at an annual cost of $1 million (Appendix E)
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From page 145... ...
138 IMPROVING ScHooL Bus SArm School Bus Monitors The estimated cost for each school bus monitor is $4,860 per year.5 For an annual investment of $1 million, about 200 school buses could be supervised by adult monitors (Appendix E)
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From page 146... ...
Cost-Effectiveness of School I3us Safety Measures 139 cost of $80 per year, about 4,300 buses could be equipped with electronic sensors (Appendix E)
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From page 147... ...
140 IMPROVING ScI400L Bus Sm injured by other vehicles in school bus loading zones, 44 percent were leaving or boarding school buses that are not equipped with stop signal arms. This results in 5 fatalities, 41 incapacitating injuries, 62 nonincapacitating injuries, and 103 possible injuries each year.
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From page 148... ...
Cost-Effectiveness of School Bus Safety Measures 141 Pupil Education Programs Of the 25 million children transported to and from school by bus, approximately 14 million are in grades K through 6, for which pupil education programs would be most effective. Pupil education programs could be conducted at an additional cost of about $1 per student per year so that 1 million students in grades K through 6 could receive this added instruction at an annual cost of $1 million.
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From page 149... ...
TABLE 6-2 REDUCTIONS IN FATALITIES AND INJURIES FROM AN ANNUAL INVESTMENT OF $1 MILLION PER MEASURE Safety Measure Effectivenessa Lives Saved Injuries Prevented Incapacitating Nonincapacitating Possible Seat beltsb 0-20 0-0.023 0-1.1 0-5.6 0-15.6 Higher seat backs 0-20 0-0.426 0-16.9 0-84.3 0-236.0 School has monitors 25-75 0.007-0.020 0.1-0.3 0.3-1.0 0.9-2.8 Crossing control arms 5-25 0.052-0.261 0.1-0.6 0.2-0.9 0.3-1.6 Electronic sensors 10-50 0.026-0.131 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.5 0.2-0.8 Mechanical sensors 10-50 0.018-0.092 0-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.5 Stop signal arms 0-30 0-0.299 0-2.8 0-4.2 0-6.9 External loud speaker systems 0-20 0-0.210 0-1.8 0-2.8 0-4.6 Pupil education programs 0-20 0-0.459 0-2.1 0-3.1 0-5.1 apereent reduction in deaths and injuries of target populations given in Table 6-1. 6Fifty percent use rate assumed.
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From page 150... ...
TABLE 6-3 ANNUAL COSTS FOR NATIONWIDE USE AND REDUCTIONS IN FATALiTIES AND INJURIES Safety Measure Effectivenessa Annual Cost ($ millions) ' Lives Saved Injuries Prevented Incapacitating Nonincapacitating Possible Seat belts' 0-20 43 0-1.0 0-48 0-238 0-665 Higher seat backs 0-20 6 0-2.4 0-95 0-475 0-1,330 School bus monitors 25-75 1,900 12.5-37.5 159-478 655-1,964 1,763-5,290 Crossing control arms 5-25 15 0.8-4.0 2-9 3-14 5-24 Electronic sensors 10-50 91 2.4-12.0 6-29 9-43 14-71 Mechanical sensors 10-50 131 2.4-12.0 6-29 9-43 14-71 Stop signal arms 0-30 5 0-1.5 0-14 0-21 0-35 External loud speaker systems 0-20 11 0-2.4 0-21 0-32 0-52 Pupil education programs 0-20 14 0-6.3 0-28 0-42 0-69 apeent reduction in deaths and injuries of target populations given in Table 6-1.
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From page 151... ...
144 IMPROVING SchooL Bus SAFETY 95 serious (incapacitating) injuries prevented each year.
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From page 152... ...
Cost-Effectiveness of School Bus Safety Measures 145 Wayne Durley, President, CARE, Inc., estimated cost at $1,550 (telephone conversation February 19, 1988)
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From page 153... ...
7 Conclusions and Recommendations COMPARED TO OTHER SURFACE modes, school bus transportation has a good safety record. Even though school buses transport more passengers per trip, the rate of occupant fatalities per mile driven for school buses is about one-fourth that for passenger cars.
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From page 154... ...
148 IMPROVING Sci-LooL Bus SA1rv to private groups such as church groups and boys' and girls' camps. Organizations operating pre-1977 buses should be informed that these buses fail to meet current standards for newly manufactured buses and that the organization should (a)
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From page 155... ...
Conclusions and Recommendations 149 wear them correctiy. Research suggests that any program to require the use of seat belts on school buses can be effective only if it has the support of the school board, school administrators, teachers, parents, and school bus drivers.
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From page 156... ...
150 IMPROVING ScliooL Bus SAFETY Of the three systems, rear-facing seats appear to pose the fewest technical problems. Lap bars present many technical problems; therefore, the committee doubts that they will ever be a viable alternative to the seat belt.
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From page 157... ...
Conclusions and Recommendations 151 Standees If the crash protection measures mandated by the various federal standards (e.g., FMVSS 220, 221, and 222) are to be effective in reducing injuries, it is essential that all passengers be properly seated.
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From page 158... ...
152 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus Suirry located at the rear of the bus. But on transit-type school buses with rear engines, the emergency exit door is located on the left side of the bus, and a hinged, push-out window is provided at the rear of the bus.
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From page 159... ...
Conclusions and Recommendations 153 monitor this research and upgrade the requirements of RvWSS 302, Rammabiity of Interior Materials, if and when new energy-absorbing, fireretardant materials become available at little added cost. Reflective Markings on School Buses The majority of school bus accidents occur during daylight hours, but more serious school bus accidents tend to occur disproportionately on high-speed roads at night while students are being transported to and from extracurricular activities.
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From page 160... ...
154 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SA1rY specified minimum hours of instruction in the classroom and "behind the wheel") before a driver is allowed to operate a school bus.
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From page 161... ...
Conclusions and Recommendations 155 been major factors in reducing the number 'of pedestrian accidents in school bus loading zones in California. Objections to the California law include longer delays to students and other traffic at bus stops where children must be escorted and leaving children unattended on a parked school bus.
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From page 162... ...
156 IMPROVING SchooL Bus SAFETY Most school buses are equipped with a cross-view mirror, as prescribed in FMVSS 111, or some other configuration of mirrors that exceeds the requirements in the standard. Yet, children, particularly younger children, are still being struck and killed by their own school buses.
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From page 163... ...
Conclusions and Recommendations 157 The most common, and least expensive, mechanical device to prevent school bus and pedestrian accidents is the crossing control arm. The crossing control arm is a device that swings out from the front bumper of the school bus to create an obstacle that children must walk around.
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From page 164... ...
158 IMPROVING SCHOOL Bus SAirrY School Bus Accident Data Finally, this study was seriously hampered by a lack of reliable and valid school bus accident data and a dearth of information on the effectiveness of potential school bus safety programs and devices. The committee recommends that NHTSA work with the states and other interested parties to upgrade and standardize school bus accident data collected by the states.
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From page 165... ...
APPENDIX A School Bus Accidents In his 1977 report to the U.S. Congress, Secretary of Transportation William Coleman stated that (NHTSA 1977, VII-2)
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From page 166... ...
160 were on board the bus are not considered school bus accidents, whereas in Maryland, almost one-half of all school bus accidents involve buses with no students on board. Other differences in school bus accident data can be found among different states.
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From page 167... ...
70 60 50 I.- z w o40 Ui IL 30 20 10 NY NC TX MN CA TN 161 FIGURE A-i Percentage of school bus accidents that resulted in death or injury in six states. accidents and school buses involved in accidents are given for Illinois, Michigan, New York, and Texas.
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From page 168... ...
TABLE A-2 SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS AND SCHOOL BUSES INVOLVED IN ACCIDENTS IN SELECTED STATES Year Illinois School Bus Accidents School Buses Involved Michigan School Bus Accidents School Buses Involved New York School Bus Accidents School Buses Involved Texas School Bus Accidents School Buses Involved 1980 1,142 1,157 1,619 1,212 1981 2,162 2,195 1,808 1,518 1,308 1,326 1,689 1,224 1982 2,541 2,584 1,887 1,602 1,449 1,467 1,705 1,261 1983 2,078 2,103 1,356 1,132 1,398 1,416 1,783 1,275 1984 2,466 2,511 1,726 1,455 1,584 1,601 1,689 1,221 1985 2,878 2,925 1,871 1,558 1,478 1,507 1,695 1,228 1986 2,887 2,939 2,134 1,787 1,271 1,295 1,696 1,181 15,012 15,257 10,782 9,052 9,630 9,769 11,876 8,602 School buses per accident 1.02 0.84 1.01 0.72
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From page 169... ...
U) z 800 1,600 1,200 400 163 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 FIGURE A-2 School bus accident data for New York.
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From page 170... ...
164 Analyses of Data From Illinois, Michigan, New York, and Texas The existing data on school bus accidents are inadequate nationwide; nevertheless, an attempt was made to use the data that were available to better understand where, when, and why school bus accidents do occur. Data from Illinois, Michigan, New York, and Texas were used because these states operate large school bus fleets and are geographically representative of different parts of the United States.
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From page 171... ...
TABLE A-4 SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS BY FIRST HARMFUL EVENT IN SELECTED STATES State (%) illinois0 Michigan' New Yorkc Texasc First Harmful Event (N = 15,129)
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From page 172... ...
TABLE A-6 SCHOOL BUS ACCIDENTS BY DAY OF WEEK IN SELECFED STATES State (%) ilhinoisa Michiganb New Yorkc Texasc Day (N = 15,129)
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From page 173... ...
167 Notes Letter from Captain L.F. Rollins, Commander, Commercial and Technical Services Section, California Highway Patrol, Sacramento, Calif., to TRB, January 22, 1988.
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From page 174... ...
APPENDIX B Fatal School Bus Accident Narratives This appendix contains brief narratives of fatal school bus accidents in California (school years 1980-1981 through 1985-1986) , Michigan (school years 1980-1981 through 1984-1985)
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From page 175... ...
170 A 39-year-old male driver of a motorcycle was killed when he failed to stop at an intersection controlled by a flashing red light and was struck by a public Type I school bus. Motorcyclist at fault.
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From page 176... ...
171 Michigan (MDSP 1981) September 29, 1980, 8:12 a.m.: a 21-year-old driver was killed when her vehicle was struck by a school bus.
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From page 177... ...
172 April 22, 1982, 8:45 a.m.: a 6-year-old male student exited the school bus and walked around the front of the bus. When in front of the bus, he dropped something and was struck by the school bus as he bent to pick it up.
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From page 178... ...
173 November 6, 1984,4:01 p.m.: a 58-year-old driver was killed when she hit a school bus head-on while attempting to pass a vehicle in her direction of travel. November 14, 1984, 8:03 a.m.: a 48-year-old driver was killed when a school bus failed to yield at an intersection and crossed into her path.
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From page 179... ...
174 The school bus stopped to discharge passengers at the bus stop.
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From page 180... ...
175 The school bus stopped to discharge passengers at the bus stop. Students crossed in front of the bus to the left side of the road.
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From page 181... ...
176 The school bus was passing a 12-year-old female student's driveway en route to the bus stop. The student was waiting in the driveway for another bus and darted in the street in front of the bus and was struck.
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From page 182... ...
APPENDIX C Supplemental Information on the 26 Fatal School Bus Accidents That Resulted in Passenger Deaths Analyses of 26 fatal school bus accidents (1982-1986) that resulted in the deaths of school bus passengers are presented in Chapter 3.
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From page 183... ...
178 an intercity bus used to transport students, typically adult students, to and from the Ozark Bible Institute. in another accident (Case 2)
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From page 184... ...
179 A 7-year-old male passenger died from injuries suffered inside the bus during the accident; he was not ejected from the bus. The bus driver and seven passengers received nonincapacitating (B-level)
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From page 185... ...
1LT. FIGURE C-2 A 1981, Type I school bus ran off roadway, skidded on right side down a concrete drainage ditch, and struck a concrete abutment.
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From page 186... ...
181 traveling an estimated speed of 40 to 45 mph. A 9-year-old male in the second-row, right-side, window seat was killed.
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From page 187... ...
182 State Association for Retarded Children (NYSARC) was involved in a headon accident with a 2-ton flatbed truck.
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From page 188... ...
183 HGURE C-3 A 1979, Type I school bus struck on the left front by a tractor semitrailer. Photograph courtesy Rehoboth Police Department, Massachusetts.
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From page 189... ...
184 April 22, 1985 (Minnesota Department of Public Safety Accident Report 51120001)
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From page 190... ...
185 - -..- tZ 1_f dw- .:' FIGURE C-5 A 1977, Type I school bus struck from the rear by a tractor semitrailer traveling approximately 59 mph. Photograph courtesy Brian Winters, Arizona Daily Sun.
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From page 191... ...
I 1•- - .47 FIGURE C-6 A 1974, Type I school bus struck from the rear by a tractor semitrailer and knocked into a guardrail and bridge piers before it overtiirned. Photographs courtesy Michigan Department of State Police.
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From page 192... ...
187 Damage to the bus was relatively minor. Of the 15 passengers on board, 9 escaped injury, 5 received minor injuries, and 1 was killed.
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From page 194... ...
APPENDIX D Thirteen School Bus Accidents in Texas That Resulted in Passenger Deaths In a study conducted at the Texas Transportation Institute an attempt was made to determine if and the degree to which seat belts (lap belts) would have prevented the deaths of 19 school bus passengers killed in accidents that occurred between 1975 and 1984 (Hatfield and Womack 1986)
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From page 195... ...
190 Passenger's head was out of the window and struck telephone pole. Passenger was in the fifth seat on right side of bus.
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From page 196... ...
191 Accident narrative: Vehicle 1 (school bus) stopped to load students while parked behind another vehicle.
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From page 197... ...
192 car) heading north on Almeda.
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From page 198... ...
APPENDIX E Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of School Bus Safety Measures Nine school bus safety measures are analyzed to determine how many lives could be saved and how many injuries could be reduced in an average year at an annual cost of $1 million. The safety measures reviewed are Seat belts, Higher seat backs, School bus monitors, Crossing control arms, Electronic sensors, Mechanical sensors, Stop signal arms, External loud speaker systems, and Pupil education programs.
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From page 199... ...
194 initial capital cost as well as annual operational and maintenance costs. To amortize the capital costs, a service life of 15 years was assumed for each of these seven devices, with no salvage value at the end of that time.
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From page 200... ...
TABLE E-1 SENSiTIVITY TO DISCOUNT RATE OF INJURY REDUCTIONS FOR $1 MILLION ANNUAL INVESTMENT Safety Measure Injuiy Severity iscount Rate D 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 Seat belts Fatalities 0.029 0.023 0.018 0.015 0.012 A injuries 1.372 1.117 0.878 0.709 0.586 B injuries 6.862 5.580 4.391 3.542 2.927 C injuries 19.215 15.626 12.295 9.916 8.197 Higher Fatalities 0.569 0.426 0.312 0.240 0.192 seat A injuries 22.516 16.856 12.352 9.496 7.592 backs B injuries 112.579 84.280 61.759 47.479 37.963 C injuries 315.222 235.982 172.925 132.941 106.297 School bus Fatalities 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 monitors A Injuries 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252 B Injuries 1.036 1.036 1.036 1.036 1.036 C Injuries 2.791 2.791 2.791 2.791 2.791 Crossing Fatalities 0.298 0.261 0.222 0.189 0.163 control A injuries 0.688 0.604 0.512 0.437 0.378 arms B injuries 1.062 0.931 0.789 0.674 0.582 C injuries 1.769 1.551 1.315 1.123 0.970 Electronic Fatalities 0.157 0.131 0.106 0.087 0.073 sensors A injuries 0.374 0.312 0.252 0.206 0.173 B injuries 0.558 0.465 0.376 0.309 0.258 C injuries 0.925 0.772 0.623 0.511 0.429 Mechanical Fatalities 0.110 0.092 0.074 0.061 0.051 sensors A injuries 0.261 0.218 0.176 0.144 0.121 B injuries 0.388 0.324 0.262 0.215 0.180 C injuries 0.644 0.537 0.434 0.346 0.299 Stop Fatalities 0.358 0.299 0.241 0.198 0.166 signal A injuries 3.293 2.748 2.216 1.820 1.524 arms B injuries 5.011 4.181 3.371 2.768 2.319 C injuries 8.231 6.869 5.539 4.549 3.810 External Fatalities 0.252 0.210 0.170 0.139 0.117 loud A injuries 2.205 1.840 1.483 1.219 1.020 speaker B injuries 3.317 2.768 2.232 1.833 1.535 systems C injuries 5.501 4.590 3.701 3.039 2.545 Pupil Fatalities 0.459 0.459 0.459 0.459 0.459 education A Injuries 2.059 2.059 2.059 2.059 2.059 programs B Injuries 3.096 3.096 3.096 3.096 3.096 C Injuries 5.140 5.140 5.140 5.140 5.140
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From page 201... ...
196 On average, 10 passengers are killed riding in these 331,500 buses each year (F = 10)
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From page 202... ...
197 (The bracketed term on the right side of the equation is referred to as a capital recovery factor.) The cost to maintain seat belts on 7,789 buses at $33 per bus is $257,050!
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From page 203... ...
198 Higher Seat Backs Questions How many school buses (X) could be equipped and maintained with higher seat backs for an investment of $1 million/year?
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From page 204... ...
199 By substituting A, B, or C for F in the second equation, expected reductions in A-, B-, or C-level injuries may be calculated: Y = ARXIS = 16.85 A-level injuries Y = BRXIS = 84.28 B-level injuries Y = CRX/S = 235.97 C-level injuries School Bus Monitors Questions How many school buses (X) could be staffed by adult monitors for an investment of $1 million/year?
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From page 205... ...
200 Solution X = 1,000,000/M = 206 monitored school buses where X is the number of buses that could be staffed with school bus monitors for an investment of $1 million/year. Y = FRXIS = 0.020 fatality By substituting A, B, or C for F in the second equation, expected reductions in A-, B-, or C-level injuries may be calculated: Y = ARX/S = 0.26 A-level injury Y = BRX/S = 1.04 B-level injuries Y = CRX/S = 2.79 C-level injuries Crossing Control Arms Questions 1.
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From page 207... ...
202 Y = CRXIS = 1.55 C-level injuries Electronic Sensors Questions How many school buses (X) could be equipped and maintained with electronic sensors for an investment of $1 million/year?
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From page 208... ...
203 where X is the number of buses that could be equipped and maintmned with electronic sensors for an investment of $1 million/year. Y = FRXIS = 0.131 fatality By substituting A, B, or C for F in the second equation, expected reductions in A-, B-, or C-level injuries may be calculated: Y = ARXIS = 0.32 A-level injury Y = BRX/S = 0.46 B-level injury Y=CRXIS = 0.78 C-level injury Mechanical Sensors Questions How many school buses (X)
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204 5. Mechanical sensors can be installed for $2,295 per bus (I = $2,295)
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205 2. How many lives would be saved (1')
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From page 211... ...
206 Y = ARX/S = 2.75 A-level injuries Y = BRX/S = 4.19 B-level injuries Y = CRXIS = 6.88 C-level injuries External Loud Speaker Systems QuestiOns How many school buses (X) could be equipped and maintained with external loud speaker systems for an investment of $1 million/year?
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207 Solution x = 1,000,000 i(1+i)
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208 Assumptions There are 25,000,000 pupils transported by school bus in the United States; 54 percent (i.e., 7/13) are in grades K through 6 (P = 13,500,000)
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209 Y = CRXIP = 5.14 C-level injuries Notes Twenty-two (44 percent) states do not require stop signal anns on newly purchased school buses.
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Study Committee Biographical Information Charley V Wootan, Chairman, is Director of the Texas Transportation Institute, College Station.
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212 Carolina. Later at Cornell University, he held the positions of Assistant Director of Automotive Crash Injury Research and Head of the Accident Research Branch at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory.
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213 an instructor at the Naval Fighter Weapons School (Top Gun)
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214 40 research reports in highway safety. He is currently a technical adviser to the Pedestrian Safety Committee of the National Safety Council.
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The Transportation Research Board is a unit of the National Research Council, which serves the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board's purpose is to stimulate research concerning the nature and performance of transportation systems, to disseminate the information produced by the research, and to encourage the application of appropriate research findings.
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Transportation Research Board National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.
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Key Terms
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