Research for Public Transit New Directions -- Special Report 213 (1987) / Chapter Skim
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1987 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OFFICERS Chairman: Lowell B Jackson, Executive Director, Colorado Department of Highways, Denver Vice Chairman: Herbert H
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SPECIAL REPORT 213 Research for Public Trans I* t New Directions Strategic Transportation Research Study: Transit Transportation Research Board National Research Council Washington, DC.
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Transportation Research Board Special Report 213 mode 2 public transit subject areas 11 administration 16 user needs 40 maintenance 53 vehicle characteristics Transportation Research Board publications are available by ordering directly from TRB. They may also be obtained on a regular basis through organizational or individual affiliation with TRB; affiliates or library subscribers are eligible for substantial discounts.
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Committee for the Strategic Transportation Research Study for Transit WILLIAM W MILLAR, Port Authority of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, Chairman LAWRENCE D
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Transportation Research Board Staff DAMIAN J KULASH, former Director for Special Projects ROBERT E
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Preface The nation's transit industry faces a continuing challenge to provide safe and reliable service at a cost that taxpayers will support. Because of the pressure of meeting daily operating concerns, the importance of research, the benefits of which may not be realized for many years, may be overlooked.
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vi PREFACE preparation were made by Nancy Humphrey and Dr. James Costantino with assistance from Deane Aboudara and Campbell Graeub.
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Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . 1 1 INTRODUCTION ..............................................7 2 EvoLuTioN OF THE PuliLIc TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRY .........11 Sources of Financial Stress in the Industry, 11 Shift to Public Ownership, 12 Transit Investment and Urban Revitalization, 12 Origins of Federal Assistance for Transit, 13 Milestones in the Evolution of Public Transit: 1960-1985, 16 Conclusion, 19 3 TRANSIT RESEARCH: PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES SINCE 1962....
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5 FINANCING AN OPERATOR-ORIENTED RESEARCH PROGRAM......57 Desired Characteristics of a Financing Plan for Transit Research, 57 Adapting the Highway Research Funding Model for Transit, 59 Funding Proposal for a Problem-Solving Transit Research Program, 62 6 MANAGING AND ADMINISTERING THE RESEARCH PROGRAM......66 Developing an Organizational Structure, 66 Defining the Role of the Governing Board, 69 Selecting a Program Administrator, 71 Developing a Plan for Disseminating Results, 78 7 NEXT STEPS..............................................82 APPENDIX A Human Resources Management..................... 85 APPENDIX B Service Configuration and Marketing.................93 APPENDIX C Service Delivery Models..........................101 APPENDIX D Internal Efficiencies ..............................
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Executive Summary The Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) has been the principal sponsor of transit research for more than 20 years.
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2 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT Transit agencies should play a dominant role in managing and implementing the research program through representation on a governing board to provide program policy guidance. The transit industry, under the leadership of an organization like the American Public Transit Association (APTA)
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3 technological innovations is also desirable. A technology-oriented research program, however, requires a larger scale of funding and longer lead times to conduct and apply successful research.
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4 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC 1'RANSIT Maintenance: research topics could include recruiting and training maintenance personnel, developing effective supervisory programs, using computerized maintenance management information systems, and developing simplified vehicle subsystems and diagnostic equipment. Equipment: research topics could include introducing automated equipment, improving component reliability and life, increasing energy efficiency, responding to environmental regulations, developing better vehicle inspection techniques, and improving procurement practices and policies.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 program, which is expected to decline to $13 million annually by the late 1980s, and the recommended problem-solving research program of $10 million should yield approximately a $23 million annual research effort, or barely more than 2/io of 1 percent of the industry's gross revenues (farebox plus operating subsidies) of $10 billion.
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RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT The second alternative would provide a fresh start by creating a new institutional arrangement, such as a new nonprofit corporation dedicated to managing the transit research program. An additional consideration is whether to adopt a centralized or a regional approach.
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1 Introduction The Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) has been the principal sponsor of transit research since the Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 first authorized the Secretary of Transportation to undertake research, development, and demonstration projects in all phases of urban mass transportation.
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8 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSJT were reduced to nearly one-third of what they had been during the 1970s. Transit issues that affect national policy became top priorities, and funding was concentrated on less costly policy studies.
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INTRODUCTION 9 apportionments to state highway and transportation departments through the Highway Planning and Research program. State highway and transportation departments therefore have a financial stake in the success of the research, and program funding is assured a share of federal highway dollars, although absolute funding levels cannot be guaranteed.
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10 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT problem-solving research orientation. A research agenda of seven broad topics that reflects transit operators' most pressing research needs is proposed in Chapter 4.
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2 Evolution of the Public Transportation Industry During the last quarter of a century the nation's transit industry has been rapidly changing. Admittedly, the perception of most transit riders might be the diametrical opposite, reflecting their familiarity with old stations, old vehicles, and old routes.
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12 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT 1940 -- this was down somewhat from travel volumes before the Great Depression. (Travel volumes totaled between 15 billion and 17 billion passengers per year in the 1920s.)
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EVOLUTION OF THE INDUSTRY 13 foundly molded the nation's transit program, and indirectly its transit research initiatives. Dilapidated Urban Cores Even before World War H the deteriorated condition of urban centers was apparent to all, particularly central-area businessmen.
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14 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT losses were causing hardship for other railroad operations (5, pp.
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EVOLU77ON OF THE INDUSTRY 15 cern" or that the proposed legislation was designed to benefit a few eastern railroads (2, p.
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16 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT systems, may have contributed to this trend. Between 1965 and 1973 UMTA helped finance the public takeover of private systems in 49 cities (7, p.
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EVOLUTION OF THE INDUSTRY 17 cliche, "If we can get three people 240,000 miles to the moon and back, why can't we get 240,000 people three miles across town? " depicts the prevalent public attitude, and this was reflected in congressional, executive, industrial, and academic thinking during the late 1960s and early 1970s when the nation was preoccupied with technological solutions to urban transportation problems.
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18 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSF participation that have been enacted over the past decade, it is now essential for planners to win the support of citizens at the neighborhood level before projects can be viewed as serious candidates for implementation. In the 1950s and early 1960s, by contrast, it was generally enough to consult with key local elected and public works officials and with the professional representatives of large enterprises that might be affected by transportation investment decisions....
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EVOLUTION OF THE INDUSTRY 19 sector can provide. This renewed governmental interest in privatization appears to be a worldwide phenomenon; illustrative examples can be found in Great Britain, France, China, Spain, Mexico, Brazil, and India (12, p.
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20 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT NOTE 1. San Francisco was the first city to own its transit system, the San Francisco Municipal Railway.
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3 Transit Research: Programs and Priorities Since 1962 Since the beginning of federal involvement in public transportation, transit research has played a significant role in the federal program. During the last 20 years alone, the Urban Mass Transportation Administration has spent more than $900 million on research (including training)
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22 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSIT TABLE 3-1 SPENDING TRENDS IN TRANSIT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT UMTA Obligations Research Obligations for Research" as Percentage of FY ($ millions) Total Transit Revenues' 1981 91.9 1.2 1982 62.6 0.8 1983 62.4 0.7 1984 33.1 04c 1985 24.4 0.25c 1986 21.6 0.22c Note: Based on data from the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, Offices of Technical Assistance and Budget and Financial Management, and The American Public Transit Association, Transit Fact Book, 1985 ed., Table 5a, p.18.
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PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES 23 majority -- more than 90 percent -- of all federal assistance for mass transit research. From 1972 to 1984, between $60 million and $75 million per year was committed or obligated to transit research through Section 6.
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TABLE 3-2 UMTA RESEARCH SPENDING, HISTORICAL SUMMARY. FY 1972 THROUGH FY 1985 (S millions)
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PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES 25 EVOLUTION OF RESEARCH PROGRAM PRIORITIES Just as the nation's transit industry has evolved in a series of rapidly changing phases, so too have its transit research activities. Looking back over the last two and a half decades, it is convenient to view transit research in four general stages: 1962-1969: planning and systems studies, 1970-1974: development of large-scale new technologies, 1975-1979: beginning of emphasis on improvements to existing technology, and 1980 -- present: support for public transportation as a business.
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26 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSIT 100 80 Management, Planning, Policy, Techniques Transition El Technology Quarter 60 0 40 20 I LI I I1 11 II I I I '62 '64 '66 '68 '70 '72 '74 '76 '78 '80 '82 '84 Fiscal Year FIGURE 3-1 UMTA research and training obligations, 1962-1984; Section 6 funds only are included except for Section 6 funds provided to the Offices of Policy and Civil Rights. (SomcE: Office of Technical Assistance, UMTA, U.S.
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PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES 27 Urban Tracked Air-Cushion Vehicle (UTACV) -- This project was intended to test the notion of a new, pollution-free "advanced concept levitated vehicle." Originally financed by the Federal Railroad Administration, the project was contracted out by UMTA to Rohr Industries to build a fully operational prototype vehicle and a 500-foot test guideway and to develop other plans and specifications [cost: $17.3 million (5, FY 1973, p.
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28 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT tion, no matter what the cost. This emphasis on development of advanced - hardware systems continued through the end of 1974.
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PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES 29 Putting the most maintenance, operations, safety, and training as possible into R&D means that what is important is not whether the wheel is new, but that the wheel works in an operating environment. I think the single most important thing any R&D program can do is hire some top-notch people who have had direct experience in operating vehicles, meeting transit schedules, maintaining vehicles, and being responsible for the safety of passengers.
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30 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSIT into new forms of mass transportation" (8, p.
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PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES 31 UMTA's primary research office was renamed the Office of Technical Assistance during this period. UMTA continued its commitment to the Service and Methods Demonstration Program during the early 1980s, evaluating and sharing with the transit community innovative transit service and management techniques.
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TABLE 3-3 COMPARISON OF UMTA RESEARCH SPENDING BY PROGRAM CATEGORY 1972, 1984, AND ALL YEARS Percentage Percentage Percentage of 1972 of 1972 1984 of 1984 1972-1984 1972-1984 ($ millions) Total ($ millions)
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PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES 33 TABLE 3-4 UMTA TRANSIT RESEARCH APPROPRIATIONS AND OBLIGATIONS 1981-1987 Amout of Appropriations Obligationso Carryover Percentage of FY ($ millions) ($ millions)
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34 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT scale, and its heavy federal involvement. In contrast with the eight broad research categories of the old program, the new R&D effort was consolidated into four Lead Programs directly linked with UMTA's mission (13, p.
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PROGRAMS AND PRIORITIES 35 UMTA's Lead Programs thus represent a significant departure in funding levels and research orientation from earlier federally sponsored transit research programs. With federal research budgets estimated at $13 million per year, research spending will soon account for only slightly more than onetenth of 1 percent of projected transit revenues of $10 billion.
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36 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSIT of such incremental improvements to these broad social goals would hardly have been apparent, but their contributions to the efficiency of transit operations would have been extremely valuable. Many UMTA projects were technological successes, or could have been, but consideration of operators' needs and constraints was not always adequate.
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11 Developing a Problem-Solving Transit Research Program In this chapter the role that problem-solving research should play in a comprehensive transit research program is summarized, and a research agenda that reflects the operators' research priorities is presented. A brief summary of each research topic and of the expected benefits from research on that topic for the transit provider is given.
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FEDERAL MISSION SUPPORT /TECHNOL,OGY \_..:•t) EVELOPMENT PROBLEM SOLVING RESEARCH _______TYPES OF RESEARCH [EDS TO ADDRESS NEEDS FEDERAL CONTRACT RESEARCIH SINGLE AGENCY OPERAR PROGRAM -' JOINT RESEARCH FIGURE 4-1 Overview of problem-solving research in the transit research program.
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40 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT Federal mission support, Technology development, and Problem solving. Each of these types of research can help transit services become safer, more reliable, more efficient, more effective, and potentially more economical.
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PROBLEdI'I-SOLVJNG RESEARCH 41 The third research category, problem solving, is frequently short term and highly applied. It responds to problems that transit operators experience as they manage today's services.
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42 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT address those problems too large for a single operator to solve. Both types of activity are needed in a strong operator program.
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PROBLEM-SOLWNG RESEARCH 43 Does it promise high payoffs in cost savings, revenue growth, system reliability, or safety improvements? Topics that met this criterion were included in the priority list.
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44 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSIT operating environments, could help to consolidate the industry position on privatization and facilitate introduction of the most promising nontraditional service options.
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PROBLEM-SOLWNG RESEARCH 45 Equipment: research topics could include introducing automated equipment, improving component reliability and life, increasing energy efficiency, responding to environmental regulations, developing better vehicle inspection techniques, and improving procurement practices and policies. Innovative financing: research t6pics could include analyzing the benefits of innovative financing techniques such as joint development, identifying the factors necessary to their successful introduction, assessing the impact of tax reform on innovative financing for mass transit, and defining appropriate roles for the private sector in public-private partnerships.
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46 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC 1RANSIT Human Resources Management More effective management of human resources has been identified as a key factor in improving productivity and thus reducing operating costs in the heavily labor-intensive transit industry. Changing operating environments -- increased demand for peak-hour service and service expansion into lowdensity suburban areas -- are in part responsible for declining productivity levels.
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PROBLEM-SOLVING RFSEARCH 47 responsibilities to increase job satisfaction are likely to be targeted as worthwhile objectives in a thorough reappraisal of human resources management practices. Given the general industry emphasis on cost-control measures and the specific interest in increasing productivity by improving employee motivation and performance, research on human resources management should find a receptive audience in today's transit managers.
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48 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT live service patterns and to define those situations that lend themselves best to service reconfiguration could provide a practical guide to the most promising alternatives. Another research area of interest is marketing.
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PROBLEM-SOLWNG RESEARCH 49 Another alternative is to incorporate more businesslike management techniques in public transit operation without actually involving private providers in the delivery of service or to adopt effective management practices developed by innovative public transit properties. At a more fundamental level, recent interest in service delivery alternatives has caused the traditional view of public transit agencies as exclusive providers of transit service within a service area to be challenged.
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50 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC 11ANSF more diverse service options are likely to be overcome if research can suggest ways of minimizing labor disruptions, safeguarding service quality, and coordinating multiple service providers. In view of the high priority UMTA has given to privatization initiatives and the need for greater industry operating efficiencies in general, more research on nontraditional service options from the operator perspective clearly would be desirable.
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PROBLEPYf-SOLWNG RESEARCH 51 technologies and approaches for different types of operators and operating environments and distilling information on the costs and benefits of adopting new equipment or practices. Research topics could include assessments of operator experience with new technologies, such as electronic fare collection equipment or methanol-fueled transit buses; examinations of the industry's "best practices," such as recent industry-sponsored insurance poois and their impact on premium costs; and studies of the most successful management applications of new automated equipment and computerized management information systems.
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52 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSIT data needed to monitor operating costs and develop more effective management programs. Maintenance Maintenance has been described by several transit properties as the "backbone of the operation." The quality of maintenance directly affects transit operators' primary mission: providing reliable service.
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PROBLEM-SOLVING RESEARCH 53 breakdowns will result in timely service and overall improvement in system performance. More vehicles should be available for service and fewer runs should be missed, which would improve customer service and labor utilization.
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54 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT tion of appropriate maintenance management information systems for effective vehicle-monitoring and procurement purposes. Because research on solutions to equipment problems is often conducted over several years, the payoff of such research may not be immediately evident.
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PROBLEM -SQL WNG RESEARCH 55 declined and passenger fares, transit's primary local funding souite, cannot be raised indefinitely without adversely affecting ridership. Thus many transit systems have explored nontraditional funding arrangements and innovative partnerships with the private sector as ways of raising revenues and broadening the base of support for public transportation.
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56 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT NOTES Philip Ringo, President of ATE Management and Service Co., Inc., conducted a survey of research needs among ATE-managed transit systems of various sizes in 25 states. Privatization refers to the provision of transit service in a community by a private corporation.
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5 Financing an Operator-Oriented Research Program Identifying and agreeing on a list of critical industry research needs are the first steps in developing a workable operator-oriented research program. The true test of commitment to an on-going program of research, however, is solid financial backing with strong transit agency support.
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58 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT reduce the federal budget deficit have resulted in substantial cutbacks in funds for transit research activities. The amount of funding obligated by UMTA for research dropped from $91.9 million in FY 1981 to $21.6 million in FY 1986, a 76 percent reduction.
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FINANCING 59 Broad Constituent Participation A broad funding base is desirable to assure widespread support for a research program. If a financial commitment were required, even of the smallest properties, all operators would have a stake in the success of the program.
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60 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT incorporated in the Interstate highway program could scarcely have been imagined when the original version of the HP&R program was authorized. The I{P&R program supports two types of research activity: a joint research capability to encourage cooperative research on problems of common interest and single-agency research to address site-specific and other specialized, local research problems.
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FINANCING 61 support research activities makes possible a relatively simple adminisirative structure. A program for problem-solving research for transit could operate in a similar manner.
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62 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSIT FUNDING PROPOSAL FOR A PROBLEMSOLVING TRANSIT RESEARCH PROGRAM The study committee recommends a required set-aside of formula grant funds to finance a $10 million annual program of research on problems of common interest to local transit agencies. Type of Funding and Program Size The program would be funded from a mandated /2 percent set-aside of existing Section 9 and Section 18 formula grants so that no new federal aid for transit would be required.2 By dedicating to research a small portion of their federal grants, which are now slated for operations and capital spending, transit agencies can expect a payoff many times larger than this modest investment.
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FINANCING 63 Some research by individual transit agencies on problems of purely local interest or of interest only to a limited number of properties may also be needed. Because the recommended set-aside will not provide adequate funds to support all of these activities, properties that are interested in pursuing research projects of a more local nature are encouraged to devote an additional portion of their Section 9 or Section 18 funds to this purpose.
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64 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT same amounts each year, earmarking of Section 3 funds for research could result in sharp variations in the specific properties participating in and the amount of funds they contribute to the program from year to year. Moreover, some systems might perceive a set-aside of Section 3 funds as a "tax" on their capital grants.
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FINANCING 65 NOTES The Hayden-Cartwright Act of 1934 provided that the 1 'h percent set-aside could be used for surveys, planning, and engineering investigations. The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 broadened the provision to include research (1, p.
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6 Managing and Administering the Research Program The success of the recommended problem-solving research program will depend heavily on the active participation of transit operators in program management and implementation. Their direct involvement in determining research priorities should increase the relevance of the research agenda and the likelihood that research results will be applied.
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UMTA APTA AAsFrF0 Private equipment suppliers and conactors Academic research Community Other interestui parties TRANSIT OPERATORS -- Research Propose I GOVERNING BOARD I Formulate -- p • Tranirt Operators - Policies and Topics • State DOTs Research Program PROGRAM I Manage and RESEARCH ADMIN1S- Review Research CONTRACTORS TRATOR ] Projests Disseminate Reviewed Results Research Resalat FIGURE 6-1 Organizational structure -- transit problem-solving research program.
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68 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT interests. Input from the broader transit community also will be important, particularly to assure that the program is coordinated with parallel transit research activities.
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MANAGEMENT AND ADM! NLSTRATION 69 research funds and are well coordinated with other research activities both within and outside the federal government (1, p.
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70 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT liaison with other organizations that have a stake in transit such as UMTA, APTA, TRB, AASHTO, private equipment suppliers and contractors, and the academic research community (Figure 6-1)
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MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION 71 the problem-solving research agenda. However, specific research topics that are germane to each sponsor's interests could be defined in a way that would avoid duplication of effort.
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72 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT as the larger properties. State involvement also must be sought because states play an increasingly important role in transit.3 Finally, the views of industry trade associations, equipment manufacturers and suppliers, the academic research community, and other organizations with an interest in transit should be represented.
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MANAGEMFRF AND ADMINISTRATION 73 tive costs of the program may be minimized if the administrative burden is piggybacked onto an existing structure and extensive changes in existing accounting and contractual procedures are not required. Ability to Disseminate Research Results Because the success of the recommended program ultimately depends on the widespread distribution of research results in a format that is useful to transit operators, the program administrator should have experience with techniques of research dissemination.
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74 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT sponsored, problem-solving research program. Were UMTA to assume administration of this research effort, transit operators would be highly skeptical of its ability to operate the program in an unbiased, independent manner.
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MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION 75 costs and loaned staff support. Research projects, however, were funded primarily from UMTA's R&D funds, although broader state and local support was envisioned.
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76 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT a program or project advisory capacity, and to capitalize on the organization's ability to receive and administer federal funds. These strengths should limit the start-up time and costs involved in setting up the new program.
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MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION 77 universities have to transit operators. Because university research project funding and selection of grantees are handled directly by UMTA, the current university program is geared to the federal transit research agenda and not necessarily to operator concerns.
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78 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSrF DEVELOPING A PLAN FOR DISSEMINATING RESULTS The success of any research program ultimately depends on widespread communication and application of research findings. A frequently heard criticism of past transit research initiatives is that the research results are inadequately disseminated.
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MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION 79 center proposal, could be built into the program. In that case not less than 5 percent of program funds are explicitly set aside to carry out technology transfer activities.
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80 RESEARCH FOR PUBUC TRANSiT Administration's Rural Technical Assistance Program (RTAP)
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MANAGEMENf AND ADMINISTRATION 81 This activity might not involve new data gathering. It could distill from UMTAfunded studies and seminars the primary reasons for barriers to information transfer in the transit industry.
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7 Next Steps Establishing a problem-solving research program will require a substantial effort. Enacting legislation to authorize a new operator-funded research program will require broad support from the transit industry and agreement on how such a program will be administered.
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NFXT STEPS 83 Enabling Legislation IV Project study Preimplementation Continuing Phases (1112 years) (1 to 2 years)
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84 RESEARCH FOR PUBLIC TRANSiT whether to adopt a centralized or a decentralized approach -- and provided a short list of four alternatives for further consideration. Among existing institutions, the study committee examined the Transit Development Corporation, the National Research Council, and universities as possible candidates for administering the program.
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Appendix A Human Resources Management The cost-revenue squeeze facing the transit industry underscores the importance of better management of human resources, the single largest component of transit operating expenses. Much of the industry's response to cost escalation has been focused on controlling wages and productivity decline through moderate wage settlements, elimination of costly work rules, and more efficient use of vehicle operators.
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Service area expansion, particularly to low-density suburban areas to meet changing population and employment patterns, has also adversely affected productivity levels. Adding low-density routes increases service costs because operator wages are spread over a small number of customers who typically travel longer distances than do passengers on central city mutes.
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87 mance of their largest cost item, personnel. Research can be instrumental in identifying successful policies and practices that should yield not only cost savings but also more fundamental improvements in the work environment.
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88 Absenteeism Management actions to address such human resources problems as increasing absenteeism also hold promise for substantial savings, particularly because many policy changes can be implemented at management discretion. In 1980 the Orange County Transit District recorded an absentee rate of approximately 12 percent and estimated the cost of an unscheduled absence at nearly three times that of a regular paid workday (personal communication with General Superintendent, Orange County, California, Transit District)
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89 moderate absenteeism rates by providing positive awards for good attendance. After 1 year of operation, the system reports savings of $200,000, a more than fivefold return on program costs of $36,000.
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90 The transit industry may also learn from the experiences of other industries that have grappled with similar issues. Policies for controlling absenteeism, training programs for supervisory personnel, and alternative strategies for addressing difficult operating requirements are just some of the areas in which the experience of private industry may be relevant.
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91 SUMMARY Research on management of human resources has potential for enormous benefits to the industry in cost savings and fundamental improvements in the transit work environment. Because more than 70 percent of total operating expenses is attributable to personnel costs, the payoff from improved productivity is central to industry cost-control efforts.
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92 REFERENCES Statement of Henry Eschwege, General Accounting Office. In The Financial and Productivity Problems of Urban Public Transportation, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Investigation and Oversight of the Committee on Public Works and Transportation, U.S.
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Appendix B Service Configuration and Marketing Many of the nation's older transit systems, particularly in the East and the Midwest, were developed to serve a dense central city core. Today land-use patterns have shifted to greater decentralization of population and employment centers, which poses a difficult challenge for transit service providers.
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94 older central cities suffered sizable population losses (1, p.
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95 more aggressive marketing posture stems in part from a lack of concrete evidence of the benefits of various marketing techniques. Research can be instrumental in providing examples of successful approaches taken by transit properties to introducing major service changes and of appropriate marketing tools that have facilitated the implementation of new service patterns.
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96 trips, which are difficult markets for traditional transit operators to penetrate (7, p.
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97 restructuring of service appears warranted, market research to analyze the travel patterns and preferences of potential and existing customers will be critical because this information can guide the location of transfer points and the layout of mutes and schedules to optimize passenger travel convenience. An effective public information program can also help minimize service disruption caused by routing and scheduling changes.
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98 advancements in marketing practices, particularly in taking advantage of the benefits of new data-processing technologies. PROPOSED RESEARCH APPROACH Research on several topics would advance the state of knowledge about appropriate transit service configurations and, more fundamentally, about ways to integrate a marketing perspective into transit operations.
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99 with restructuring service, however, will require more definitive research on the relative costs and benefits of these approaches and on the circumstances most conducive to their successful introduction. Research on ways to optimize routes and schedules can also result in improved system performance.
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M. Nelson, D
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Appendix C Service Delivery Models Concern about rising industry costs and reluctance to increase public subsidies have caused public transit operators to consider alternative service arrangements as one method of increasing the efficiency, and thus reducing the cost, of service. The usual strategies of attempting to reduce deficits through fare increases or service cutbacks are second-best alternatives, given the industry's primary mission of providing affordable and adequate service.
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102 providers of transit service. New institutional arrangements in which the public operator sets policy and coordinates but does not necessarily provide service are being tested.
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103 patronized routes (4, p.
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RIM Inc., in 1984 to operate and maintain a suburban express system between downtown Dallas and the surrounding communities. Under Trailways' management, operating costs were estimated to be 30 to 40 percent lower than if the service had been provided by DART directly (personal communciation with DART staff)
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105 transit authorities to separate the policy-making from the operating flinctions and to encourage competition in the provision of service is already under way in several major metropolitan areas including Minneapolis/St. Paul and Chicago among others (12, pp.
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as coordinators of service delivery, are feasible. Because several metropolitan areas are currently experimenting with new service delivery models, this should be an opportune time to take stock of such efforts.
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107 Research on alternative service delivery arrangements is also likely to encourage a reevaluation of the traditional role of public transit authorities as exclusive providers of transit service. Restructuring public transit authorities to separate the policy-making from the operating functions as a way of encouraging more competition in the delivery of service is already being tested in a number of major metropolitan areas.
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108 Lion, and The International Taxicab Association; UMTA, U.S. Department of Transportation.
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Appendix D Internal Efficiencies Faced with continuing increases in operating costs and intense budgetary pressures at all levels of government, today's transit managers are searching for ways to operate more efficiently to bring costs under control. The industry's major contributor to operating expenses, personnel costs, is discussed in Appendix A
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110 cost elements have been identified as significant and growing factors in transit's total cost picture. The energy crisis had a significant impact on the prices of fuel and electricity.
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111 handle paper currency. Electronic equipment also can reduce opportunities for fare evasion and theft and provide opportunities for more flexible, revenuemaximizing fare structures.
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112 of natural gas and coal, which would limit vulnerability to foreign-dominated energy supplies and pricing (10, pp.
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113 options are under way in California, Michigan, Minnesota, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Virginia (14, p.
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114 ment costs. Given the range of new fare equipment technologies available and the substantial capital costs involved, research can be critical in identifying appropriate technologies for different types of transit operators and fare collection problems.
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115 Industry-sponsored insurance pools and studies of insurance options, for example, are recent phenomena. Research on the most promising insurance strategies and a "how to" guide for assessing insurance options should be of great interest to many transit managers.
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116 imately 15 percent of farebox revenues, or $400 million, each year to fare evasion and theft. Additional losses of $300 million, or 10 percent of farebox revenues, are attributed to inflexible fare structures.
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117 REFERENCES Transit Fact Book.
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Appendix E Maintenance Maintenance has been described by several transit properties as the "backbone of the operation." The quality of maintenance directly affects transit operators' primary mission: providing reliable service. Frequent vehicle breakdowns and missed runs not only wreak havoc with equipment and personnel scheduling but can also adversely affect ridership levels in the long run.
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119 maintenance workers nationwide are estimated to have 5 years or less experience on the job (3)
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120 a portion of these costs can be recouped through a better trained, more reliable maintenance work foree. Improved Service Reliability Maintenance not only represents a high-cost item in transit budgets, it is also correlated directly with service reliability.
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121 various conferences that maintenance is the most critical area where research is needed" (4, p.
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122 Along with improved maintenance personnel practices, research on maintenance techniques, including computerized maintenance MISs, is needed to provide the necessary information base from which to develop and monitor effective maintenance programs. A good information system will enable transit properties to track vehicle performance, analyze different repair strategies, and ultimately optimize maintenance inspection and repair cycles.
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123 active research program and a receptive audience for practical and usable research results. NOTES Between 1979 and 1983, the latest year for which national data are available, maintenance expenses per vehicle mile and per vehicle revenue hour increased for all modes (6, pp.
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Appendix F Equipment Transit research and development programs have always been focused heavily on equipment This is not surprising because the industry purchases an estimated $4 billion each year of capital goods and services (1, p.
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125 Despite the high costs of capital purchases, transit operators have experienced a decline in equipment performance and life and an accompanying increase in maintenance problems. Changes in vehicle design as well as proliferation of different vehicle models are largely responsible.
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Pb1 lion on operating and maintenance costs has hampered monitoring activities and procurement methods that attempt to take into account life-cycle costs (9) 2 in the short term, research can be instrumental in increasing transit operators' awareness of techniques and practices, including diagnostic tests, training programs, and information systems, that are available to improve troubleshooting of equipment problems, increase fuel efficiency, and strengthen transit's bargaining position in procurement.
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127 was used by the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) in a 1981 demonstration with 33 instrumented and 40 control buses.
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128 purchasing lead times, simpler procurement specifications, and reduced training for maintenance personnel (13, pp.
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129 Advanced Design buses (1, p.
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130 PROPOSED RESEARCH APPROACH An industry-oriented research program on equipment-related issues should reflect the problem-solving focus of transit managers. One major area of interest is the development of more reliable, easier-to-test transit vehicles and equipment.
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131 stration of an Automated Bus Diagnostic System at the NYCTA did not prove cost-effective, the savings potential warrants further research. Standardization of vehicle components offers another opportunity for cost savings through joint purchasing, reduced inventoiy levels, shorter purchasing lead times, simpler procurement specifications, and reduced training for maintenance personnel.
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132 REFERENCES The Changing Face of Transit Procurements. Metropolitan, March -- April 1985.
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Appendix G Innovative Financing For many of the nation's capital facilities, transit among them, capital investment requirements have far outpaced revenues available to meet them. Moreover, raising revenues has proved difficult in the current political climate.
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134 periods of fiscal stress in the 1970s, now face enormous backlogs of renovalion needs that require long-term financial support. All transit systems face annual investments to replace rolling stock and repair existing facilities.
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135 financing techniques that have the greatest potential to fill current revenue gaps and in examining the chief obstacles to their adoption. Research can also identify the most successful processes for engaging the private sector early and productively in transit planning and financing decisions.
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136 its station area development program to achieve a recapture of from $32 million to $42 million, a benefit-to-cost ratio of from 6:1 to 8:1.5 How well this strategy can be transferred to other communities will depend on local market conditions. The revenue potential of innovative financing techniques may also be affected by the method of financing itself.
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137 pooled purchasing of transit vehicles as well as more basic state assistance for general operations, have become more commonplace assures a permanent state role in transit financing. Research can help identify examples of effective partnerships between transit authorities and states or the private sector as models for other communities.
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138 can identify and monitor the actual benefits attributable to joint development projects. This kind of information should be important to other properties contemplating similar projects, particularly in their lease negotiations with the private sector.
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139 margin. Studies have estimated that joint development projects involving property development in new rail corridors can provide between 5 and 15 percent of rail construction costs, a significant part of the local share of a major capital improvement project.
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140 REFERENCES A Guide to Innovative Financing Mechanisms for Mass Transportation. Rice Center, Houston, Tex., Dec.
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Study Committee Biographical Information WILLIAM W MILLAR, Chairman, is the Executive Director of the Port Authority of Allegheny County (PAT)
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142 well as a former chairman of the TRB Executive Committee and the APTA board of Directors.
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143 American Military Engineers. He was elected to the Transit Hall of Fame in 1986.
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144 Deputy Secretary for Planning for the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation. He is active in many professional associations, including the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Planning Association, and the National Society of Professional Engineers.
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145 WILLIAM W PARKS recently retired from Vapor Corporation where he was President from 1983 through 1986.
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146 and coauthor of numerous articles and reports on transportation policy and public transportation.
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The Transportation Research Board is a unit of the National Research Council, which serves the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board's purpose is to stimulate research concerning the nature and performance of transportation systems, to disseminate the information produced by the research, and to encourage the application of appropriate research findings.
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Transportation Research Board National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.
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Key Terms
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