Safety Research for a Changing Highway Environment Special Report 229 (1990) / Chapter Skim
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Committee for a Strategic Transportation Research Study: Highway Safety A RAY CHAMBERLAIN, Chairman, Colorado Department of Highways, Denver RICHARD D
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Preface In the next 10 to 15 years, many new safety features, such as airbags and antilock brakes, will become standard equipment on passenger vehicles, further improving the safety of motor vehicle travel. These new safety features are the product of years of research and development, and, in the case of airbags, of lengthy regulatory controversy over their implementation.
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tion departments, state departments of motor vehicles, universities and consultants, the insurance industry, automobile manufacturers and suppliers, and highway user groups. The results of the committee's year-long deliberations are summarized in a package of recommendations for improving the scope, funding, and management of future highway safety research activities.
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Contenis ExecutiveSummary ..................................... Overview of the Highway Safety Problem ...............13 Scope of Study and Organization of Report, 14 Dimensions of the Highway Safety Problem, 15 Looking to the Future, 24 Conclusion, 31 2 Contribution of Research to Highway Safety .............36 Responsibility for Highway Safety and Research, 36 Research Priorities, 39 Illustrative Accomplishments, 45 Funding Trends, 48 Summary, 51 3 Research To Address Emerging Highway Safety Problems ...........................................57 A Well-Structured Research Program, 57 Gaps in Current Research, 59 Emerging Problems and Topics for Research, 61 Summary Themes, 81 4 Research To Address Persistent Highway Safety Problems ...........................................
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6 Funding Requirements . 130 Level of Funding, 130 Sources of Funding, 131 Benefits of Expanded Highway Safety Research Program, 132 Appendix A Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research Programs and Priorities .......................134 Study Committee Biographical Information ................161
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Executive Summary M otor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of death and injury in the United States. The annual drain on society's resources is enormous -- $70 billion (in 1986 dollars)
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SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT declined during the 1980s. Cutbacks in federal funding have reduced support for research at NHTSA and FHWA, the primaiy federal sponsors of highway safety research.
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$0 Cancer Heart Disease Highway Safety $1,000 U) 0 $800 S $600 $400 Executive Summary death in the United States.
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4 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT During the mid-1960s, a federally funded national program of highway safety research was created to support the new federal regulation of motor vehicle safety and state highway safety program standards. In the decades that followed, research sponsored by both government and industry laid the foundation for many advances in highway safety: introduction of motor vehicle safety features, such as safety belts and energy-absorbing steering columns; design of more forgiving highway barrier systems and roadside hardware that breaks away on impact; enforcement strategies and licensing actions to deter alcohol-impaired driving; and improved emergency medical services to increase postcrash survivability.
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Executive Sum,nary 5 and motor vehicle manufacturers are making large investment decisions with limited knowledge of their safety benefits. Effects of Research Gaps Large Implementation Costs Many safety standards entail substantial implementation costs, so it is essential to know to what extent these investments would save lives and reduce injuries.
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SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Unknown Safety Benefits New technologies with the ability to provide drivers with considerably more information on vehicle and highway conditions, such as navigational display systems, are being rapidly developed for passenger cars. The technology could reduce the problem of driver inattention by providing advance warning of risky situations; however, too much information could overload and distract the driver, particularly older drivers, who tend to process information more slowly than younger ones.
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Executive Summary research, however, would save many times its costs in avoiding less than fully effective regulations and promoting those safety interventions with a high potential for saving lives and reducing injuries. RESEARCH AGENDA AND FUNDING REQUIREMENTS The committee examined future changes in the travel environment and identified six areas (see text box)
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TOPICS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH, continued Highway Safety Design and Operation The aging of the highway infrastructure presents an opportunity for making safety improvements to accommodate changes in the driver and vehicle population. More needs to be known about the safety benefits of alternative highway design and traffic engineering improvements to accommodate a wide range of vehicle types, congested highway conditions, and the special problems of an aging population of drivers and pedestrians, and to weigh these against the costs of improvements to determine which improvements can yield net safety benefits and where they are best employed.
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Executive Summary Finally, federal agencies must maintain and improve highway safety data bases, which support research as well as the management and monitoring of highway safety programs. These data bases are essential and are most effectively managed and maintained at the national level.
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10 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT The committee was cognizant of the risks of this strategy -- DOT's imperfect track record of supporting quality research and building a corps of scientific researchers as well as the difficulty of conducting long-term research in a political environment. Nevertheless, the current administration of the Department of Transportation is perceived to be committed to creating a climate more conducive to new ideas and new approaches.
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Executive Summary 11 Research proposals and findings should be peer reviewed to encourage research of high quality; the research facilities should be available to industry, government, and academic researchers alike on a competitive basis; and adequate provision should be made for the education and training of new researchers. This program is essential to developing a scientific basis for motor vehicle regulation.
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12 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT BENEFITS OF AN EXPANDED HIGHWAY SAFETY RESEARCH PROGRAM Recommended changes in the scale and direction of research activities, if targeted well, should provide a level of effort more commensurate with the size of the highway safety problem. The additional $30 million to $40 million in federal funding required to support these changes represents about a 50 percent increase over the current annual spending on highway safety research from combined federal and state sources of approximately $70 million.
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1 Overview of the Highway Safety Problem M otor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of death and injury in the United States. During the 1980s, 40,000 to 50,000 lives were lost each year on the nation's highways and nearly 80 times that number were injured annually.
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14 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT and the training of new researchers has languished. What research funds are available have not always been used effectively, hampered by research agendas that are often narrowly defined and contracting methods that limit researchers' scope of inquiry.
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Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 15 In short, the committee took a fresh look at the direction, funding levels, and management of highway safety research. The timing of this effort could not be better.
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16 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Yet millions of Americans drive each day and complete their trips safely, thus reinforcing the individual's perception that the risks involved in driving are low. Motor vehicle crashes and their consequences are large in the aggregate -- nearly 18 million crashes, 4 million injuries, and about 45,000 fatalities each year (NHTSA 1988b, x)
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100 80 20 0 1-24 V 25-44 V 45-64 Y 65+ V Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 17 Injury crashes 2,801,000 Fatalities 46,056 Injuries Severe (MAIS 2: 3) 161,973 Moderate (MAIS < 3)
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18 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT 1.5 1.4 0.5 1.8 1.5 MV Crashes Cancer Heart Disea6e FIGURE 1-2 Potential years of work life lost before age 65 by cause of death (Centers for Disease Control 1990, 21; NHTSA 1989, 1-27) cause of nonfatal injury; they accounted for 22 percent of hospitalized and 9 percent of nonhospitalized injured persons (Rice et al.
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Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 19 TABLE 1-1 MOTOR VEHICLE CRASH COSTS, 1986 (NHTSA 1988a, x; Milleretal. 1989, 305, 311; Miller 1989, A-I)
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20 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT crashes that are not reported to the police are included (Table 1-1)
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Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 21 10 Q 1 I I I 47 51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 Year -- . -- Per 100 Million VMT -- f -- Per 10,000 Persons FIGURE 1-3 Motor vehicle fatality rates per vehicle miles of travel (VMT) versus motor vehicle fatality rates per capita, 1947-1987 (Accident Facts 1989, 70-7 1)
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22 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT These injuries, however, tend to be less severe than those on rural highways. 10 In 1973 imposition of the 55-mph speed limit accompanied by fuel shortages brought about another decline in highway fatality rates.
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Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 23 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 Year - U.S. + U.K # Germany -- - France -- Italy -•- Norway -a- Australia FIGURE 1-4 Motor vehicle fatality rates for selected countries, 1970-1986 (MVMA 1989, 92; MVMA 1987, 92; MVMA 1982, 92; MVMA 1977, 56)
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24 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT TABLE 1-2 FATALITIES, INJURIES, AND RATES BY ROAD USER GROUP Fatality' Injurya Road User Group Fatalities Rate Injuries Rate Vehicle occupants Passenger cars 24,922 1.9 2,895,272 222.5 Trucks 7,307 1.4 633,431 122.0 Buses 38 0.7 14,344 282.7 Motorcycles 4,551 48.4 171,945 1,829.8 Other 1,393 N.A.
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Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 25 recent years, however, the slope of the curve has flattened, suggesting that the decline in fatality rates may be progressing more slowly than in the past. Projecting Fatality Rates Motor vehicle fatalities ranged between 40,000 and 50,000 annually during the 1980s (NHTSA 1989, 1-6)
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26 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT ence reduced driving skills because of the degradation of functional and cognitive skills that accompanies aging (TRB 1988, 72)
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14 Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 27 11111111 0 0-15 16-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75+ Age Group 1983 M 2030 FIGURE 1-6 Occupant deaths, 1983, and for projected 2030 population (NHTSA special computer tabulation and Census Bureau 1984)
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2, 28 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT U-10 1b-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75+ Age Group 1983 M 2030 FIGURE 1-7 Nonoccupant deaths, 1983, and for projected 2030 population (NHTSA special computer tabulation and Census Bureau 1984)
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Overview of the Highway Safely Problem 29 crash. Bicyclists and motorcyclists are the most exposed in a crash with a motor vehicle, but in fatal crashes in which a large truck is involved, occupants of the other vehicles account for approximately three-fourths of the fatalities (NHTSA 1989, 6-32)
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30 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT (U.S. Congress 1989, 99)
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Overview of the Highway Safely Problem 31 tion about highway conditions, and in-vehicle information devices will provide instant advisories about crashes and congestion as well as navigational information. Vehicles may be equipped with electronic devices to detect and warn the driver of unsafe vehicle conditions (e.g., presence of objects in driver blind spots, impending rollover)
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32 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT of the highest-risk youth groups (i.e., ages 15 to 24) will be driving.
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Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 33 13. injury, $115,000 per MAIS 3 injury, $375,000 per MAIS 4 injury, $1,525,000 per MAIS 5 injury (Milleret al.
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34 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Urban Freeways.
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Overview of the Highway Safety Problem 35 Transportation in an Aging Society, Vol. 2, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp.
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2 Contribution of Research to Highway Safety T he origins of highway safety research are nearly as old as the motor vehicle itself, but until creation of a federally funded national program of highway safety research in the mid- 1960s, research was "fragmentary, inconclusive, and uncoordinated" (U.S. Congress 1956)
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Contribution of Research37 TABLE 2-1 MAJOR SPONSORS OF HIGHWAY SAFETY RESEARCH Pnmaiy Areas of Emphasis Organization Human Vehicle Highway Other Federal government National Highway Traffic Safety Administration X X X0 Federal Highway Administration X Office of Motor Carriers X X Xb Centers for Disease Control X X X" States X" Private industry Automobile manufacturers Xe Automobile suppliers X Insurance industry X X Xf Highway industry X Crash data collection, maintenance, and analysis.
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38 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT including research, were split between two agencies within the U.S. Department of Transportation: the newly created National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
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Contribution of Research 39 component parts. Performance standards for many vehicle safety features are required by federal regulation, but the automobile manufacturers and the larger equipment suppliers also conduct independent research on the safety as well as the performance of their products.
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40 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT (A more detailed history of highway safety research programs can be found in Appendix A.) Driver and Pedestrian Safety Driver error or inappropriate driving behavior is a major contributing factor to motor vehicle crashes.
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Contribution of Research 41 areas -- occupant protection and alcohol abuse. Together, these areas have received two-thirds of the funds available for behavioral research since the inception of the NHTSA research program (Table A-i)
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42 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Research in biomechanics -- that is, the study of injury mechanisms and human tolerances to trauma -- provides the basic knowledge to support the development of testing devices and, from these, performance standards for testing vehicle crashworthiness. Early NHTSA-sponsored research, which drew on previous biomechanical research sponsored mainly by General Motors (GM)
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Contribution of Research 43 devoted considerable resources to vehicle crashworthiness research over the last two decades through testing, developing computer simulation models, and conducting biomechanics research (GMRL 1988)
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44 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT tion for the highway program in 1991 (FHWA 1989b)
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Contribution of Research 45 The National Center for Statistics and Analysis of NHTSA, which administers the data bases, conducts in-house analyses of crash data to define the magnitude of specific safety problems, provide supporting information on regulatory initiatives, and evaluate specific safety countermeasures. From time to time, it may also conduct in-depth crash investigations on topics of priority interest, such as high-severity crashes of cars equipped with airbags and other automatic restraint systems.
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46 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Biomechanics and Vehicle Crashworthiness In the late 1950s, GM began developing an energy-absorbing steering column that would compress in a frontal crash to absorb most of the energy of the collision between the driver and the steering system. The key question from designers was how much resistance the column should offer to cushion the impact and reduce injury risk for the largest number of drivers.
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Contribution of Research 47 shoots of this research have also been used in the testing and development of several other safety innovations, including airbags (Viano 1987)
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48 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT this level of effectiveness, up to 80,000 injuries and $910 million in property damage will be avoided each year once all cars have center highmounted stoplights (Kahane 1989, ix)
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Contribution of Research 49 70 60 50 40 30 69 20 lO j_................................................
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50 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT 35 30 69 c'J co c 25 20 15 0 C 10 5 0I I .
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Contribution of Research 51 TABLE 2-2 SUMMARY OF FUNDING FOR HIGHWAY SAFETY RESEARCH, 1989 Organization Funding ($ millions) Federal National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 40.8° Federal Highway Administration 6.
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52 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT federal regulation of motor vehicle safety and state highway safety programs brought a new focus to research in the decades that followed. Research was conducted on each of the principal elements affecting highway safety -- the human, the vehicle, and the highway -- and the research has paid off.
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Contribution of Research 53 Research was specifically identified as an eligible activity in the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944; the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1962 restricted the set-aside for research and planning purposes only (FHWA 1976, 321)
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54 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT research on cancer by the American Cancer Society was $89 million in 1988. Private funding for research on heart disease by the American Heart Association was $65 million in the same year.
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Contribution of Research 55 GMRL.
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Research To Address Emerging Highway Safely Problems M eeting the highway safety problems that are likely to emerge over the next several decades requires innovative solutions that can be developed by research. A prerequisite for effective research is a well-structured research program in highway safety; current research programs fall short in key areas, as will be shown.
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58 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Some research capacity will always be needed to support agency rulemaking and programs. In particular, federal agencies with regulatory authority, such as the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
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Emerging Highway Safely Problems 59 provide reasonable guidance (e.g., which types of driving situations present the highest risks, what alternatives are available) , so that the audience will heed the information.
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60 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT program, the development, design, and regulation of these technologies are likely to proceed without the full benefit of this information.3 Large Implementation Costs NHTSA will soon enact final regulations for occupant protection in sideimpact crashes. Industry is critical of the injury criteria and side-impact dummy that NHTSA has proposed and maintains that the safety benefits projected by the agency are optimistic (Viano et al.
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 61 of traffic engineering decisions such as the installation of traffic control devices and the location of signs (TRB 1987a, 77; Hauer 1988a, 249)
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TABLE 3-1 RESEARCH AGENDA TO ADDRESS EMERGING SAFETY PROBLEMS Changes in Future System Characteristics Problems Created by Change Examples of Needed Research Older drivers and pedestrians Increase in fatalities and injuries Injury tolerance for older persons to improve crash survivability for drivers and pedestrians 65 Performance capabilities of older drivers and pedestrians years and older Highway design for older drivers and pedestrians Licensing screening and standards for older drivers Acute care and rehabilitation for elderly crash victims Vehicles New technologies to aid older drivers Growth of large-truck traffic Increases in fatalities from large- Performance capabilities of commercial drivers truck-involved crashes Highway design for large trucks Evaluation of major truck safety programs Police capabilities to detect truck safety violations Trend toward smaller cars, Higher crash risk of smaller Truck safety data Injury reduction through improved occupant protection greater use of light trucks vehicles Enhanced vehicle conspicuity and minivans for personal Increased vehicle speed and Highway design for a mixed fleet use weight differential, increasing Safety impacts of environmental regulations crash risk New technologies for collision avoidance Increased congestion Increased potential for vehicle Behavioral effects of congestion conflicts Safety impacts of congestion-related highway design improvements Increases in injuries and property Enforcement methods for congested highways damage Emergency access on congested highways New informational technologies Aging of highway infrastructure Increase in work-zone crashes Safety benefits of alternative design improvements Inadequate attention to safety Emergency access in work-zone areas improvements New informational technologies Development of new technolo- Potential driver overload Behavioral responses to new technologies gies for use in the vehicle, on Equipment reliability and privacy Automated technologies for enforcement and safety program the highway, and for safety issues management program management New technologies for emergency access in rural areas
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Emerging Highway Safely Problems 63 population will be 65 or older. Meeting the mobility needs of this segment of the population will become an increasingly important transportation goal.
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64 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT produce a single rib fracture in a healthy 25-year-old man; the same impact in a 65-year-old may well generate multiple life-threatening fractures, often associated with damage to internal organs (Mackay 1988, 174)
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Emerging Highway Safely Problems 65 Research projects should be designed to use larger samples that adequately represent older persons. The decline in performance capabilities of older drivers may be exacerbated by use of prescription drugs, some of which impair performance.
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66 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Licensing Screening and Standards More study of both the visual and the cognitive changes associated with aging as they affect driver licensing is warranted. In the area of vision, for example, an improved driver vision screening procedure that measured night vision, peripheral vision, or dynamic visual acuity would better predict future driving performance than current procedures (Waller 1988, 74)
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 67 learned from the broader experience in managing younger patients (Champion et al. 1989; Scalea et al.
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68 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT projected to grow at an average annual rate of 3.3 percent over the next several decades (Highway Performance Monitoring System data base, special computer run) , well above the 2.34 average annual growth rate projected for traffic of all types (U.S.
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Emerging Highway Safely Problems 69 high performance of truck drivers is a major priority. Steps are being taken to improve truck driver performance.
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70 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT (Harwood et al.
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 71 tion to be practical) , and examining the costs and benefits of emerging and available technologies that can enhance police detection abilities.
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72 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT lighter and smaller) 0 Because of continued environmental and energy concerns, these trends are not likely to be reversed in the near future.
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Emerging Highway Safrty Problems 73 crashes. Better methods of illuminating the sides and rear of large trucks are being investigated to help avoid rear-end collisions with faster-moving passenger vehicles at night.
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74 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT expense of safety, because smaller, lighter cars afford vehicle occupants less protection from death and injury in the event of a crash (Graham and Crandall 1989; Partyka and Boehly 1989)
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 75 ior; attentional lapses can precipitate a crash. With increased congestion likely, more in-depth study of the extent to which traffic congestion increases the stress of driving, attentional requirements, and the extent of risk taking and how these affect crash risk under varying levels of congestion has high priority (Deacon 1988, 20)
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76 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT New Informational Technologies Advanced driver information systems have the potential to assist the driver in safely handling the complexity of the traffic environment, particularly under congested conditions. For example, with road-to-vehicle communications, the driver could be advised to begin slowing well in advance of traffic stopped by congestion or a crash.
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Emerging Highway Safely Problem5 77 because of the opportunity for integrating safety improvements during these projects. A good start has already been made in TRB's recent study of 3R-related design features, which attempted to identify whether a relationship between safety and a design feature exists, what the direction of the relationship is, and what the likely magnitude of the safety impacts is over a range of possible improvements (TRB 1987a, 80)
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78 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT for driver overload and distraction and on the costs of alternative technologies. New Technology Advances in electronics and communications technology are likely to transform the vehicle and the highway of the future.
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 79 issues of driver acceptance of surrendering a measure of control of the vehicle to automated systems and the related effects on driver vigilance and risk taking should be examined. New technology could also enhance the research effort itself.
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80 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT technologies to ease traffic congestion will provide further opportunities to test public opinion about their use in traffic law enforcement and to measure their effectiveness in reducing speeding. New technologies also have potential for streamlining labor-intensive licensing procedures and motor vehicle inspection programs, but the capital costs and benefits of automated methods and the obstacles to their introduction have received limited attention.
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 81 improved training for first responders, and better coordination of emergency service provision. SUMMARY THEMES Promising topics for research identified under each of the expected areas of change in the travel environment (Table 3-1)
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82 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Highway Safety Design and Operation The highway network will be handling an increasing number of vehicles, a more diverse vehicle mix, and a changing population of drivers in the coming decades. Major portions of the highways themselves will reach the end of their design lives, creating an opportunity for upgrades and improvements to accommodate changes in the driver and vehicle mix.
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 83 example, as more becomes known about the capabilities of certain groups of drivers that are likely to be more prevalent on the highways in the future, such as the elderly and commercial drivers, as well as their limitations under certain driving conditions (e.g., at night and while fatigued) , this knowledge can be used to devise more appropriate methods for monitoring and screening drivers at the time of licensing and license renewal, and for modifying licensing practices.
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84 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT NHTSA has already issued an advance notice of proposed rulemaking on head-up displays (Federal Register 1989)
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 85 OTA Office of Technology Assessment TRB Transportation Research Board Beilock, R., and R Capelle.
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86 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Hirsch, Ti.
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Emerging Highway Safety Problems 87 Study. Traffic World, Vol.
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88 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Injury in Lateral Impacts. Accident Prevention and Analysis, Vol.
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ri Research To Address Persistent Highway Safety Problems Even if all of the research to address emerging highway safety prob-lems suggested in Chapter 3 were conducted and implemented, major problems would remain. A well-structured highway safety research program should make adequate provision for continuing research on persistent safety problems as well.
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TABLE 4-1 RESEARCH AGENDA TO ADDRESS PERSISTENT HIGHWAY SAFETY PROBLEMS Problem Scale of Problem Examples of Needed Research Substance-impaired Nearly 40 percent of fatally injured drivers Incidence of drug-impaired driving driving legally intoxicated (i.e., BAC ~t 0.10 per- Effects of drugs on driver behavior cent) Screening methods to detect drug-impaired driving Attitudes toward driving, alcohol, and drug use Alternative strategies to increase deterrence Effect of alcohol intoxication on injury survivability Young drivers Vehicle occupant fatalities among 16- to 24- Attitudes toward risk taking and driving (under 25)
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Persistent Highway Safety Problems 91 Bernardino County, complete drug screens have been administered to all fatally injured crash victims for the last 2.5 years; of the over 700 fatalities, 21 percent had illicit drugs in their bloodstream at the time of death (Root 1989)
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92 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT BAC. With the BAC as a measure, the confounding effects of body size and metabolism can be controlled for as performance is studied.
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Persistent Highway Safety Problems 93 the major categories of drugs (e.g., stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens) , enabling enforcement efforts and testing to be more highly targeted (Compton 1988, 38)
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94 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT effects. The necessary components of public information programs also must be refined.
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Persistent Highway Safety Problems 95 are still likely to constitute the single largest category of all occupant fatalities for the foreseeable future (Figure 1-6)
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96 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT found no statistically significant differences in the number of crashes and violations between teenage students who had received training and a control group who had not.2 However, because the students that had received driver education were licensed sooner than the control group, it could be said that the former were able to drive earlier without a significant increase in crashes and violations. Other studies (Lund et al.
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Persistent Highway Safety Problems 97 highest for those between the ages of 20 and 64, and has remained relatively stable over the past decade (NHTSA 1989, 2-1 1) , suggesting that drunk driving countermeasures may not be reaching adult pedestrians.
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98 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Vehicle Design The design of several vehicle features, including bumpers and hoods, can affect the severity of injury when a pedestrian comes into contact with a motor vehicle. Measures to afford pedestrians greater protection, such as softer and more uniform vehicle fronts in the area where the pedestrian's head is likely to strike the vehicle during impact, and lower bumpers to reduce the probability of pelvic and leg fractures, have been proposed (TRB 1988a, 89; IIHS 1989, 15)
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Persistent Highway Safety Problems 99 have proven to be 29 percent effective in reducing motorcycle driver and passenger fatalities in a crash (Wilson 1989, 1) , but helmet use is far from universal; only 23 states require riders to wear helmets (statement of Jerry Ralph Curry, NHTSA Administrator, before the Transportation Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, U.S.
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100 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT on the part of the bicycle rider and the driver of the motor vehicle (Cross and Fisher 1977, 19)
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Persistent Highway Safely Problems 101 way hazards for cyclists (TRB 1988b, 8)
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102 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT visual capacity and search patterns, particularly nighttime visibility requirements and the effect of glare on nighttime perception; and driver decision-making and vehicle control skills (i.e., perception-decisionresponse times)
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From page 112... ...
Persistent Highway Safety Problems 103 traffic violations. Law enforcement agency managers need assistance in both convincing others of the need for traffic enforcement and making the most out of the resources they are given.
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From page 113... ...
104 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Effectiveness of Adjudication Alternatives The effectiveness of many traffic safety countermeasures depends also on sanctions for violators. However, the court system is often unable to handle some traffic law violations expeditiously.
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From page 114... ...
Persistent Highway Safety Problems 105 Preliminary results from a follow-up evaluation of the DeKaIb study, which tracked the control and experimental groups through 6 years of driving experience, indicated a significant difference in the number of crashes and violations between those students who had received some minimum training and the control group (Smith 1987, 4)
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From page 115... ...
106 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Compton, R
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From page 116... ...
Persistent Highway Safety Problems 107 NHTSA.
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From page 118... ...
5 Improving the Management of Highway Safety Research I nnovative, forward-looking research is needed to respond to current and emerging highway safety problems. However, there are limita-tions in the structure of existing highway safety research programs and the methods of conducting research.
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From page 119... ...
110 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT As federal funding has been cut back, the capacity to sustain research expertise in relevant research disciplines has also dwindled. For example, there are few graduate programs in biomechanics, and many human factors specialists who were working on highway safety issues have switched to aviation issues, where funding is more abundant.' Those with new doctoral degrees are reluctant to build a career in these and other research areas where funding is limited and uncertain.
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From page 120... ...
Improving the Management111 Many of the shortcomings in the way that highway research funds are managed have been raised before. At the Dulles Conference, conducted by the Transportation Research Board in 1979 on NHTSA's Highway Safety Research, Development, and Demonstration Program, the absence of long-range, fundamental research to establish the knowledge base for development of specific countermeasures and regulations was criticized (TRB 1979, .39-40)
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From page 121... ...
112 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT have research departments, but the more common practice is to contract out research projects to universities and consultants. Extramural Funding Several methods are available for providing external research funds to individual researchers or research organizations, but not all of these are widely used in the highway safety field.
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From page 122... ...
Improving the Management 113 primary grants program in highway safety is the CDC Injury Control Program. Cooperative Agreements A cooperative agreement is a relatively new funding mechanism that falls somewhere between a contract and a grant in terms of flexibility and management of the research (Stoto et al.
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From page 123... ...
114 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT fields and fellowships can be granted to individual students to support graduate education. Although this model has been heavily used in the engineering3 and scientific communities, it is not common in the highway safety field, in part because of limited funding.
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From page 124... ...
Improving the Management 115 simplified and timely procurement process can help ensure that new ideas generated by research are available when needed to inform policy choices and decisions. Although government procurement practices have generally become more constrained with passage of the Competition in Contracting Act and enactment of the Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR)
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From page 125... ...
116 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT develop a long-range plan for research on the older driver. Such forums, if held on a periodic basis, could provide a means of revising priorities as work progresses and a vehicle for disseminating research that has been completed.
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From page 126... ...
Improving the Management 117 TABLE 5-1 DESIRED CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGHWAY SAFETY RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND THEIR CURRENT USE BY FEDERAL PROGRAM SPONSORS Use by Agency Characteristic NHTSA FHWA CDC Grants No" No,, Yes Contracts Yes Yes No Investigator-initiated research No No Yes Outside peer review No No Yes Multiyear funding of research institutions No No Yes Mechanisms to define long-term research priorities No No No and programs Career development No No No NOTE: NHTSA = National Highway Traffic Safety Administration; FHWA = Federal Highway Administration; and CDC = Centers for Disease Control. Technically, NHTSA and FHWA can and have awarded grants.
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From page 127... ...
118 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT which include a more sustained commitment to programs of long-term research, greater use of outside peer review to enhance the quality of research, and more flexible funding arrangements to encourage innovation. CDC Program The injury control program managed by CDC has many of the desired characteristics to encourage innovation in research.
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From page 128... ...
Improving the Management 119 National Science Foundation One option examined was to develop a new highway safety research program at NSF. A research program with a special emphasis on highway safety could be established within NSF's existing engineering program structure or piggybacked onto its multidisciplinary Engineering Research Centers (ERC)
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From page 129... ...
120 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT also present in the highway safety area. The main attraction of creating a new research institute for highway safety along the lines of HEI is the opportunity to start afresh and build research capacity that is relatively independent of the regulatory and political environment.
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From page 130... ...
Improving the Management 121 highway safety research than an agency like NSF or, to a lesser extent, CDC, for which highway safety is not an agency priority. Second, given budgetary realities and the likelihood of obtaining at best relatively small amounts of additional funding, the committee was unwilling to fragment the research effort by spreading the funds.
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From page 131... ...
122 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT programs of long-term research are desired, the agencies should encourage their support by providing multiyear funding of university centers and other research institutions. In addition, the agencies must invest in the future by providing support for graduate programs and research fellowships to ensure that new researchers are being trained in fields of special interest.
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From page 132... ...
Improving the Management 123 priorities and provide an agenda for funding and a basis for monitoring progress. Improving Contract Research Programs Contract research programs at NHTSA and FHWA could also be strengthened by providing prospective contractors with more advance information on research program priorities, preferably for a 2- to 3-year period.
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From page 133... ...
124 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT crashes are needed to support research on crash avoidance. Finally, improved methods of collecting and linking safety data from widely different sources (e.g., police accident reports, hospital records)
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From page 134... ...
Improving the Management 125 mechanics research is a "science .
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From page 135... ...
126 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT and behavioral research as well as research in other disciplines related to driver-vehicle interaction and the role of new technologies in crash avoidance should be central to an expanded initiative in crash avoidance. Research proposals and findings should be peer reviewed and provision made for education and training of new researchers.
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From page 136... ...
Improving the Management 127 Highway Safety Research Program (NCHSRP)
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From page 137... ...
128 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT versity of California at Los Angeles and at San Francisco; Harborview Medical Center; School of Public Health, University of North Carolina; and the School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University. For FY1990, CDC has organized its research program according to the three phases of injury: prevention, acute care, and rehabilitation.
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From page 138... ...
Improving the Management 129 Grumbly, T
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From page 139... ...
6 Funding Requirements Conducting the research identified in this study to anticipate and attack the highway safety problems of the future will require a more adequate level of funding and a more sustained commitment of resources than in the past decade. Additional funding should be dedicated to programs of long-term research to provide the knowledge base for making further advances in highway safety.
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From page 140... ...
Funding Requirements131 sent, but must be tempered initially by the lack of capacity to absorb a large funding increase. A 50 percent increase in current annual public funding, or $30 million to $40 million, was judged to be a reasonable starting point.
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From page 141... ...
132 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT process. Thus, to the extent possible, additional funding should be provided from trust fund revenues.
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From page 142... ...
Funding Requirements 133 savings in lives, there is no single highly effective countermeasure that will bring comparable gains in highway safety. Rather, progress is more likely to come from small advances through a wide range of safety interventions.
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From page 143... ...
Appendix A Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research Programs and Priorities A n overview of highway safety research programs and priorities, with particular emphasis on research programs of the past two decades, is given in this section. ORIGINS OF HIGHWAY SAFETY RESEARCH The field of highway safety research grew with the expansion of the nation's highway system and the rapid increase in automobile use.
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From page 144... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research135 topics, the need for uniform traffic laws and vehicle inspection to reduce traffic crashes (FHWA 1976, 343; TRB 1979, 3)
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From page 145... ...
136 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Expansion of the Federal Role The rise in motor vehicle fatalities and the death rate (measured in fatalities per 100 million vehicle miles traveled) during the 1960s began to draw Congressional attention to the need for an expanded federal role in highway safety.
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From page 146... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 137 The Haddon Matrix Factors Physical and Socioeconomic Phases Human Vehicle Environment Precrash Crash Postcrash Results Damage to Damage to Damage to Physical Envi- People Vehicles and ronment and Society Equipment SOURCE: Adapted from Haddon 1979, 47. NHTSA and Other Federally Sponsored Research In the U.S.
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From page 147... ...
TABLE A-i NHTSA APPROPRiATIONS FOR DRIVER AND PEDESTRIAN SAFETY RESEARCH BY PROGRAM CATEGORY, FY1972-1989 Appropriation ($ thousands) by Fiscal Year Program Area 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 TQ 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Total Alcohol and drug research" 1,700 2,200 2,200 2,200 1,895 500 1,795 1,750 1,488 950 541 850 850 1,050 960 1,534 1,574 1,468 1,443 26,948 Driver and pedestrian factors Occupant protection NA NA 600 310 305 0 295 265 255 500 560 1,150 1,150 1,195 1,200 1,077 1,250 1,214 1,725 13,051 Driver education and training NA NA 308 275 410 0 123 232 0 98 283 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,729 Driver licensing and contrul NA NA 476 445 575 0 401 420 307 409 382 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,415 Motorcyclesafety 0 0 0 275 450 0 373 250 192 356 289 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,185 Older driver research 0 0 0 100 40 0 140 0 223 0 0 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 315 858 Pedestrian and bicycle safety 0 NA 490 795 970 0 1,000 834 802 667 486 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 6,054 Speed and other unsafe driving actions 0 NA 126 450 550 0 468 399 383 620 751 200 150 0 0 0 0 368 525 4,990 Subtotal 800 1,838 2,000 2,650 3,300 825 2,800 2,400 2,162 2,650 2,751 1,350 1,300 1,195 1,240 1,077 1,250 1,582 2,575 35,745 Grand total 2,500 4,038 4200, 4,850 5,195 1,325 4,595 4,150 3,650 3,600 3,292 2,200 2,150 2,245 2,200 2,611 2,824 3,050 4,018 62,693 NOTE: Figures represent budget appropriations and are not adjusted for reprogramming actions that occurred.
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From page 148... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 139 sanctions, tests were devised to enhance the reliability of police detection of driver impairment, and testing and evaluation of breath test measurement devices and vehicle ignition interlock systems were conducted. Pedestrian Research Another important field of study during the 1970s was the pedestrian research program, which began with a pioneering study (Snyder and Knoblauch 1971)
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From page 149... ...
140 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT group who had received no formal instruction, no statistically significant differences were found in the number of crashes and violations between teenage students who had received training and a control group who had not.3 Other studies, funded by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) (Robertson 1980; Lund et al.
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From page 150... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 141 unsafe driving behaviors. When the 55-mph national speed limit went into effect in 1973, research was directed toward the development of performance guidelines for radar speed-measuring devices.
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From page 151... ...
142 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT research under the category of injury prevention. Research grants have been awarded for studies on prevention of alcohol-impaired driving and prevention of childhood injury through measures to increase bicycle helmet and safety belt use among children.
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From page 152... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 143 tion among the driver, the vehicle, and the highway -- may be given a higher priority than it has received in the past (Campbell 1989, 8)
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From page 153... ...
144 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT 1988, after roughly 10 years of development, NHTSA proposed its amended side-impact standard (see discussion below on biomechanics)
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From page 154... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 145 and the environment in potential and actual crashes. Although excellent data sources have been developed for analyzing crash severity over the last two decades, little information on precrash factors is available to help isolate vehicle characteristics that might have contributed to a crash.
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From page 155... ...
146 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT is spent on crashworthiness and biomechanics. Major projects currently include the rollover studies discussed earlier, continued work in side impacts, and improved frontal protection.
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From page 156... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 147 of production vehicles (Richardson 1982) , and the program was ended in the early 1980s.
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From page 157... ...
148 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT When the successful pilot program Was completed, Congress funded a permanent injury control program under the CDC in 1989, with the majority of the funding from the Department of Health and Human Services. As a result, NHTSA funds were freed for other research, and the direct link between CDC and NHTSA was severed.
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From page 158... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safely Research 149 tive laminated windshields, airbags, safety belts, and child restraints. The standards set for these vehicle features are improving the crashworthiness of new model cars.
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From page 159... ...
150 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Federally Coordinated Program of Highway Research, Development, and Technology)
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From page 160... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 151 stability (Vallette et al. 1981; Hanscom 1980)
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From page 161... ...
152 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Wet Weather Accidents During the 1970s, FHWA undertook a comprehensive 10-year, $10 ml! lion effort in cooperation with the states to develop a better understanding of wet weather crashes (TRB staff estimate based on Annual Progress Reports of the Federally Coordinated Program of Highway Research, Development, and Technology)
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From page 162... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 153 thonzing legislation for the highway program in 1991. Like NHTSA, FHWA would place greater emphasis on human factors research to identify and understand incompatibilities between driver capabilities and limitations (fatigue, age)
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From page 163... ...
154 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT is to focus research on specific problems that are amenable to quick-action responses, these projects are typically 1- to 3-year efforts. For example, a safety-related project that is currently in progress is a 3-year, $450,000 effort to improve traffic control and barrier treatments for work zones.
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From page 164... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 155 yet, despite these efforts, few widely accepted models of the safety effects of individual geometric features have been established, and even less is known about the combined effects of several features (TRB 1987, 78-79)
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From page 165... ...
156 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT The rule required a phase-in of passive restraints starting with 1987 models, but also included a recision provision stating that if states representing twothirds of the nation's population enacted mandatory safety belt use laws before April 1, 1989, the requirement for automatic protection would be removed (Graham 1989, 180)
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From page 166... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 157 871099. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa.
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From page 167... ...
158 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Traffic Management Problems in Work Zones. Report FHWA-RD-79-4.
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From page 168... ...
Historical Overview of Highway Safety Research 159 Roy Jorgensen Associates.
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From page 169... ...
160 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Viner, J.G., and C.M. Boyer.
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From page 170... ...
Study Committee Biographical Information A Ray Chamberlain, Chairman, is the Executive Director of the Colorado Department of Highways.
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From page 171... ...
162 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT Ph.D. from the Department of Education at Michigan State University.
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From page 172... ...
Study Committee Biographical Information 163 cal and Electronic Engineers, and the Society of Automotive Engineers. He has served on numerous committees of the National Research Council.
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From page 173... ...
164 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT motive Medicine, a member of the American Public Health Association, the American Statistical Association, the Eastern Association for the Surgeryof Trauma, and the Association for Health Services Research.
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From page 174... ...
Study Committee Biographical Information 165 traffic safety program evaluation.
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From page 175... ...
166 SAFETY RESEARCH FOR A CHANGING HIGHWAY ENVIRONMENT National Needs, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Conservation at the U.S. Department of Energy, and President of the Lighting Research Institute.
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From page 176... ...
The Transportation Research Board is a unit of the National Research Council, which serves the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board's purpose is to stimulate research concerning the nature and performance of transportation systems, to disseminate the information produced by the research, and to encourage the application of appropriate research findings.
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From page 177... ...
0 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.
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