Strategic Planning for the Florida Citrus Industry Addressing Citrus Greening Disease (2010) / Chapter Skim
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2 Challenges to Citrus Production
2 Challenges to Citrus Production
Pages 17-66
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Important producers of sweet oranges for fresh consumption are Spain, Turkey, South Africa, and California (United States)
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The Florida citrus industry is estimated to have a $9.3 billion economic impact for the state. Approximately 80,000 full-time equivalent jobs (grove employees, seasonal pickers, haulers, processors, packers, and managers)
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Florida's hot and humid climate has made the success of its citrus industry possible, but periodic winter freezes and hurricanes have shaped the industry's development. The Great Freeze of 1894–1895 proved devastating.
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Table 2-1 Impact of 2004–2005 Hurricanes on Florida Citrus Crop Yield (Number of Boxes) Fruit 2003–2004 2004–2005 Percent Decline Orange 242,000,000 149,600,000 38 Grapefruit 40,900,000 12,800,000 69 Specialty 8,900,000 7,000,000 19 Source: USDA-NASS, 2005.
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By the 1980s, Brazil had become the largest supplier of citrus fruit and juice. Urbanization and diseases have been critical factors in the recent history of the Florida citrus industry.
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Improving current measures for excluding pests and pathogens would likely benefit Florida citrus, but pest exclusion is a topic beyond the scope of this report. HLB is now present in all 34 Florida counties that have commercial citrus fruit production (FDACS-DPI, 2009)
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Source: FDACS-DPI, 2009. ECOLOGY, CLIMATE, WATER AND FLORIDA CITRUS Landscape Factors that Contribute to Pest Outbreaks in Florida It has been estimated that approximately 4,500 arthropod species have been introduced into the United States and of this total, approximately 1,000 insect and mites have become crop pests (Pimentel et al., 2000)
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Displacement of citrus from urbanized coastal areas has resulted in a larger proportion of the crop being at risk from frost damage. Urban encroachment on production areas means that even if commercial citrus producers use effective management practices to control ACP in their groves, nearby residential plantings may serve as a reservoir for ACP and HLB.
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Unlike other evergreen fruit trees such as avocado and mango, citrus trees continuously replace their leaves as they grow. Further, citrus trees have a relatively shallow root system as compared to deciduous fruit trees such as apple and walnut.
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As is stated in the University of Florida 2010 Florida Citrus Pest Management Guide, "the only soil-applied insecticide that has been shown to provide any reduction in psyllid numbers on large trees is aldicarb" (Rogers and Dewdney, 2010)
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Growers and researchers in Vietnam have noted that interplanting citrus with guava almost entirely negated infestations by citrus psyllids and, as a consequence, the citrus trees remained free of HLB (Stover et al., 2008; L Stelinski citing unpublished report from Vietnam)
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. Transmission of the HLB agent by the Asian citrus psyllid vector, Diaphorina citri, was reported simultaneously in 1967 in India (Capoor et al., 1967)
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. Most HLB-affected citrus trees worldwide carry one of three recognized liberibacter species designated as Candidatus Liberibacter africanus (CLaf)
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. However, in early 2007, a genuine plant mycoplasma, i.e., a phytoplasma, belonging to 16Sr group IX was detected in sweet orange trees in northern São Paulo State (Teixeira et al., 2008a)
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. Transmission by graft-inoculation to healthy sweet orange seedlings has been demonstrated and EM observations showed CLam to be restricted to the sieve tubes.
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Reunion Islands Teixeira et al., 2005a, Citrus spp.; transmissible to Sieve-tube restricted; Brazil (São Diaphorina citri Candidatus (Asian citrus b,d,e; Lopes et al. 2009 Liberibacter periwinkle by dodder gram-negative; heat Paulo and psyllid)
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Wulff et al.., 2009 wall-less; has 99% sequence identity with pigeon pea witches' broom phytoplasma (group 16Sr IX) Phytoplasma Citrus Sieve-tube restricted; China Chen et al.., 2009 wall-less; related to (Guangdong)
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Workshop on Citrus Huanglongbing and the Asian Citrus Psyllid (held in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico) and in a review by Halbert and Manjunath (Halbert and Manjunath, 2004)
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E Rogers, Citrus Research and Education Center, Lake Alfred, FL; (B, C, and D)
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provide a list of plant species that are hosts of the ACP. The psyllids can feed on many citrus species and citrus close relatives, but the preferred hosts are Murraya paniculata (Orange jasmine, mock orange)
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Symptomatology Symptoms of infected field tree In sweet orange trees, the early stages of infection can be identified by the presence of one or several characteristic "yellow shoots". With time, the yellow shoots grow into larger yellow/pale green branches.
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Irey, US Sugar Corporation, Clewiston, FL. Blotchy mottle is most apparent on sweet orange leaves, but most other citrus species and varieties also show it, including grapefruit, pummelo, citron, rough lemon, Citrus macrophylla, Volkamer lemon, and sour orange.
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Sensitive species, varieties or scion-rootstock combinations (Citrus and Citrus relatives) The most severe symptoms are found on sweet orange, mandarin, tangelo, and grapefruit, followed by lemon, rough lemon, and sour orange.
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. In the Western Cape Province of South Africa, Calodendron capense, an ornamental rutaceous tree (Cape chestnut tree)
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The distribution of the HLB-associated liberibacters and the HLB insect vectors are given in Table 2-3 and Figure 2-10. In all countries in Asia, Southeast Asia, and Oceania, the HLB-associated agent and the psyllid vector are temperature tolerant.
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42 STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR THE FLORIDA CITRUS INDUSTRY Table 2-3 Geographical Distribution of Huanglongbing-associated Liberibacters and their Insect Vectors Organism Countries Present References AFRICA Burundi Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 Candidatus Liberibacter Cameroon Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 africanus and Central African Republic Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 Trioza erytreae Ethiopia Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 Kenya Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 Malawi Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 Nigeria Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 Somali Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 South Africa McClean and Oberholzer, 1965a Swaziland Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 Tanzania Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 Zimbabwe Garnier and Bové, 1996; Bové, 2006 ARABIAN PENINSULA Yemen Bové and Garnier, 1984 INDIAN OCEAN: Madagascar Island Bové, 2006 ASIA Candidatus Bangladesh Bové, 2006 Liberibacter Bhutan Bové, 2006 asiaticus and Cambodia Bové, 2006 Diaphorina citri China Bové, 2006 East Timor Bové, 2006 India Capoor et al., 1967 Indonesia Bové et al., 2000a
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CHALLENGES TO CITRUS PRODUCTION 43 Organism Countries Present References Iran Faghihi et al., 2009 Japan Miyakawa and Tsuno, 1989 Laos Bové, 2006 Malaysia Miyakawa and Tsuno, 1989 Myanmar Bové, 2006 Nepal Bové, 2006 Pakistan Bové et al., 2000b Papua New Guinea Bové, 2006 Philippines Martinez and Wallace, 1967 Sri Lanka Bové, 2006 Taiwan Bové, 2006 Thailand Schwarz et al., 1973 Vietnam Bové, 2006 ARABIAN PENINSULA Saudi Arabia Bové and Garnier, 1984 AMERICA Belize Citrus Growers Association pamphlet, 2009 Cuba Luis Pantoja et al., 2008 Dominican Republic Matos et al., 2009 Mexico NAPPO, 2009d Puerto Rico NAPPO, 2009c Florida, United States Halbert, 2005 Georgia, United States NAPPO, 2009a Louisiana, United States Lemon and Harless, 2008 South Carolina, United NAPPO, 2009 States
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44 STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR THE FLORIDA CITRUS INDUSTRY Organism Countries Present References Brazil Coletta-Filho et al., 2004; Teixeira et al., 2005a–e Candidatus Liberibacter China (unconfirmed) Lou et al., 2008 asiaticus, Candidatus Liberibacter americanus, and Diaphorina citri INDIAN OCEAN Reunion Island Garnier et al., 1996 Candidatus Liberibacter Mauritius Island Garnier et al., 1996 africanus, ARABIAN Candidatus PENINSULA Liberibacter asiaticus, Saudi Arabia/Yemen Bové and Garnier, 1984 Diaphorina border region citri, and Trioza erytreae Argentina Vaccaro, 1994; Augier et al., 2006 Diaphorina citri Bahamas Halbert and Núñez, 2004 Bolivia Bové, 2006 Cayman Islands Halbert and Núñez, 2004 Costa Rica Villalobos et al., 2005 Guadeloupe Étienne et al., 1998 Honduras Burckhardt and Martinez, 1989 Oman Al-Zadjali et al., 2008 Puerto Rico Halbert and Núñez, 2004 Venezuela Cermeli et al., 2000 Virgin Islands (St.
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CHALLENGES TO CITRUS PRODUCTION 45 Organism Countries Present References Hawaii and Maui, United Conant et al., 2007 States Alabama, Georgia, NAPPO, 2008 Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, United States California, United States CDFA, 2009 Arizona, United States NAPPO, 2009b Portugal (Madeira PLANT Protection Service of Portugal, 1994–12 Trioza erytreae Islands) Spain (Canary Islands, González Hernández, 2003 Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma, El Hierro)
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cultivars. Inoculation can be done with budwood sticks, bark pieces, buds, and patches of blotchy mottle leaves from affected parts of the candidate tree.
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Serological diagnostic methods. Thirteen monoclonal antibodies (MA)
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Immediately after the discovery in 1970 that HLB is associated with a bacterium (and not a virus) , tetracycline injections into the trunks of HLB-affected citrus trees were tried in South Africa, and found to significantly reduce the incidence of symptomatic fruit (Schwarz and von Vuuren, 1971; Schwarz et al., 1974; Moll and van Vuuren, 1977; Moll et al., 1980)
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. To our knowledge, the only report of successful HLB mitigation through biological control was accomplished on Reunion Island, where citrus production had been essentially eliminated by HLB.
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production of healthy citrus trees in "closed", insect-proof nurseries for new orchards as well as for replacements of removed symptomatic trees. In South Africa, where the less aggressive CLaf occurs, effective management has been achieved by the use of disease-free nursery stock, aggressive psyllid control, and removal of infected trees.
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The Southern Gardens Diagnostic Laboratory (SGDL) continues to operate and is now partially funded by the University of Florida and the Florida Citrus Production Research Advisory Council.
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in South Africa is associated with the heat-sensitive Candidatus Liberibacter africanus and the psyllid vector is Trioza erytreae, which is also heat sensitive. In the mid 1970s, citrus production was virtually eliminated by HLB in the major citrus producing areas in South Africa.
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Lin over 50 years ago, which remain the hallmark of HLB control worldwide. The following practices comprise the HLB management program: Production and maintenance of clean citrus stock in insect-free greenhouses and o screenhouses Identification and removal of symptomatic trees o Application of chemical insecticides to control psyllid populations o Moving citrus production from areas where HLB incidence is high to new o locations with cooler weather and are more isolated from existing citrus farms.
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In farms that were located in municipalities that had high HLB incidence and were adjacent to orchards that do not control HLB, good to fair level of HLB control was achieved through a high number of inspections and insecticide applications. In general, poor to very poor level of HLB control was observed in farms that had all or some of these characteristics: located in municipalities with high HLB incidence o bordered by orchards that do not control HLB o had young trees o had a fewer number of inspections and insecticide applications o started the HLB management program late o Insecticidal Control of Psyllids Many insecticides that are effective against psyllids are currently registered for use on Florida citrus.
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. Applications in Florida citrus are limited to the November–April period to avoid leaching of the product into ground water during summer rains.
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Similar to the situation with young trees, by eliminating these adults, psyllid populations will be greatly reduced on the following spring flushes. Application Methods Traditionally, foliar applications to Florida citrus have been made with airblast sprayers using spray volumes of 100 to 250 gal/acre.
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removal of the HLB-affected trees. soil-applied and foliar insecticides for psyllid control.
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They could be reduced by using a dormant foliar insecticide application rather than aldicarb in the winter, but could be substantially higher if more applications are needed to control psyllid populations. Effect on Returns and Profits The costs and returns on Florida citrus vary greatly depending on the variety of citrus grown, its destination (fresh or processing)
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China produces some juice currently and has the potential to become a major player in the juice market as their production has increased significantly in recent years. There are several factors that affect the ability of Florida citrus growers to compete for the market for citrus juice.
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This diversity of agencies presents both an advantage, by allowing many points of view to be developed, and a challenge, because of the need to channel efforts to combat HLB. In order to develop a picture of the Florida citrus industry's many moving parts, we provide Table 2-4 which arranges the various agencies with influence over citrus production, processing and marketing or advocacy according to their status (university, government, non-government)
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Appendix G presents short mission statements for each of the agencies. The concern and sense of urgency over the HLB situation in the Florida citrus industry prompted the awarding of unprecedented amounts of funding for research aimed at developing short-, intermediate- and long-term approaches to mitigating the disease.
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FCIRCC: Florida Citrus Industry Research Coordinating Council FCM: Florida Citrus Mutual
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Speakers from the USDA and DPI are often on the program and cooperation has generally been good among the agencies in providing current information to growers. Local meetings have been organized primarily by DPI, UF and Florida Citrus Mutual to bring the latest information on canker and HLB to growers in each area of the state.
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From page 64... ...
However, the current system of production of all citrus trees in screened enclosures has benefited everyone in the industry. The incursion of HLB has brought the industry and government agencies together as never before, and cooperation among all agencies has generally been good, if not always effective.
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From page 65... ...
. Recently developed organizations such as Florida Citrus Industry Research Coordinating Council and the Citrus Research and Development Foundation represent significant attempts by the industry to coordinate all efforts focused on HLB.
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