Confronting Climate Change Strategies for Energy Research and Development (1990) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
4 Potential for Reducing Emissions of Greenhouse Gases
4 Potential for Reducing Emissions of Greenhouse Gases
Pages 45-127
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 45... ...
A key part of this analysis is the identification of alternative energy technology options to meet specific service demands in the respective market sectors such that the technology application is accompanied by significant reductions in the quantity of GHGs emitted per unit of service provided, compared to current practice. In this sense the electric power sector is concerned with the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity to all users; the industry sector is concerned with the manufacture of all products, including fuels; the transportation sector is concerned with technologies to move people and goods; and the residential/commercial sector is concerned with the design of buildings for all sectors as well as with the provision of services within the building envelope (space conditioning, lighting, refrigeration, etc.)
|
From page 46... ...
For a significant reduction in GHG emissions, demand for electricity must be reduced and an effective generating strategy implemented. The alternative pathways are shown in Figure 4-1.
|
From page 47... ...
o 0 0 c' 0 o v em 0 W CQ .
|
From page 48... ...
Significant reductions of CO2 emission from current levels may be possible in the near term if the following actions are implemented between now and the year 2000: · Increase end-use efficiency in all end-use sectors by aggressive R&D and demand-side management programs. Increase nuclear power plant availability from international practice current 64 percent to the highest percent to 85 percent)
|
From page 49... ...
~ - ~ - ~ :- ~ v to o )
|
From page 50... ...
Availability of Technology to Reduce GAG Emissions The technology evaluations in this chapter are subdivided into the primary energy resources-fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewable/unconventional energy. In addition, transmission, distribution, and storage technologies are addressed.
|
From page 51... ...
Environmental research and regulations should therefore include GHG emissions as a criterion in evaluating new approaches to coal combustion. Capture and Disposal of CO2 Although capture of CO2 emissions from combustion gases can be achieved by conventional technolog~es-with assessment of energy penalties In the 15 to 30 percent range 3'4 - this is only a small part of the problem.
|
From page 52... ...
are leading to the development of new generations of reactors. Most of the advanced reactors fall into one of six types: evolutionary large light water reactors (LWRs)
|
From page 53... ...
Most of the present 8 GW of installed biomass generating capacity in the United States is based on the steam Rankine cycle and is concentrated in the pulp and paper industry, where the fuel used is low-cost wood wastes. Some pressurized airblown gasifiers closely coupled to various steam-injected aeroderivative gas turbine cycles appear to be well suited to biomass applications.
|
From page 54... ...
If heat mining of deep hot dry rocks can be developed, between 10 and 106 quads of energy might be available. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
|
From page 55... ...
R&D Needs ~d Priorities Following are broad guidelines for developing an effective set of options for generating electricity with technologies that will significantly reduce emissions of GHGs: · The most important and immediately ef fective option is increasing energy productivity that is beneficial in addition to its potential for GHG reduction. · A number of nonfoss'1 energy options are possible for GHG emission reduction in power generation.
|
From page 56... ...
Review of DOE Fossil Energy R&D Program The DOE Fossil Energy R&D Program has had as its main purpose the continued use of fossil fuels as a fundamental component of our domestic energy use. The program has two parts: clean coal technology funded in FY 1990 at $554 million and fossil energy R&D funded in FY 1990 at $417 million.
|
From page 57... ...
Review of DOE Nuclear Energy RED Program The current DOE civilian nuclear fission R&D program has a threefold objective: ] 2~ ~3 · to develop the advanced LWR in cooperation with industry to meet near-term needs, term, and to develop advanced reactors (MHTGR, L~R)
|
From page 58... ...
FY 1989 FY 1990 Large LWR pants 6.5 3.4 Mid-sized LIAR plants 8.5 15.0 Other LURs 2.5 0.0 MHTGR 19.8 22.5 I~R/IPR S4. 2 35.1 Total advanced reactors 91.5 76.0 Facilities support 139 .6 169.6 Magnetic fusion 344.6 320.
|
From page 59... ...
nuclear power development is currently under way to review and assess development approaches for the next generation of advanced reactors and to articulate a nuclear R&D strategy for the United States. In the broad context of alternative energy R&D strategies for reducing emissions of GHGs, however, an international study should be undertaken by DOE on criteria for globally acceptable reactors.
|
From page 60... ...
Total and specific investment costs of advanced reactors should be examined. A 5-year construction time should be a worldwide target.
|
From page 61... ...
~ . In the context of the current study, addressing alternative energy R&D strategies to deal with global climate change, the committee's view is that commercially viable fusion reactors are highly unlikely to make any significant additions to the U.S.
|
From page 62... ...
_ needed for the ongoing DOE program to grow terrestrial (woody and herbaceous ~ energy crops . R&D is also needed on biomass fuel A program aimed at developing biomass-based power generation would emphasize biomass production, harvesting, and preprocessing; demonstrating biomass gasifier/gas turbine power technologies; and understanding better the long-term biomass resource base.
|
From page 63... ...
Systems Analyses for Renewables DOE should launch a new analytical effort, in partnership with both the photovoltaics and utility industries, aimed at assessing potential roles for renewables in the power sector over time. This systems analysis should be aimed at identifying market entry and strategic development paths and conditions under which large-scale penetration of the power sector by renewables is feasible-including various renewables/storage ~ including hydrogen)
|
From page 64... ...
A comprehensive set of studies that consider the multiplicity of criteria involved In affecting R&D program formulation would represent a sound up-front investment before any expensive hardware proj ects are initiated. The ma j or strategies for T&D involve efficiency improvements, advanced communication and control technologies, advanced network system management, superconductor transmission lines, and energy storage technologies.
|
From page 65... ...
Increasing end-use efficiency is a particularly important component of any global strategy to reduce and stabilize GHGs in the atmosphere. Fossil Fuels · Achieving substantial reductions in global GHG emissions will severely limit the use of coal as a primary energy source for electric power production unless economically acceptable means can be found for CO2 removal and sequestering.
|
From page 66... ...
Renewables · Of the renewable technologies that could be available in the near term, biomass grown renewably and used to produce electricity in gasifier/gas turbine technologies offers potential as an option for a CO2 balanced energy strategy. ~ Significant advances have been made in improving the efficiencies and lowering the costs of photovoltaics, wind, and solar thermal technologies.
|
From page 67... ...
Cars and light trucks, fueled principally with gasoline, account for 57 percent of the transportation energy consumed in the transportation sector and also for an equal percentage of the carbon emissions; they are therefore the primary focus of this section. The three fuel-mode combinations that total 25 percent of the sector energy consumption and CO2 production are also briefly addressed.
|
From page 68... ...
The emissions of carbon dioxide from the combustion of petroleum-based fuels are expressed in this table as million metric Cons of carbon (MTC)
|
From page 69... ...
light trucks are by far the most important target for emissions reduction. Two effective ways have been identified to reduce CO2 emissions from cars and light trucks over the near term: ~ improve vehicle fuel efficiency (or fuel economy)
|
From page 70... ...
For example, as shown in Table 4-4, cars and light trucks consumed 12.6 quads of fuel in 1987 under the average load factor of 1.7 passengers per vehicle. If the load factor had been 2.5 instead, the fuel consumed would have dropped to about 8.6 quads; carbon dioxide emissions would have dropped from about 254 MTC to about 173 MTC.
|
From page 71... ...
Near Term. It is reasonable to expect some reduction in GHG emissions from the personal transportation subsector by the year 2000.
|
From page 72... ...
TABLE 4-5 Energy Consumption and Carbon Emissions from Automobiles and Light Trucks: Illustrative Scenarios for the Year 2000 Fleet Average Passenger Energy Carbon Load Fuel Economy Miles Consumed Emitted Scenario Factor (mug) Traveled*
|
From page 73... ...
Thus, fossil fuels would remain the only option. Such possibilities reinforce the importance of vigorous long-term pursuits of the near-term objectives stated above: technologies to enable development of very efficient vehicles and means to increase the efficient use of transportation systems.
|
From page 74... ...
would be the fuel of choice; diesel engines, for example, can use methanol with relatively minor changes. Moreover, fuel tank capacity in diesel trucks can be increased more easily than in cars and light trucks to offset the lower energy density of the alcohol fuels.
|
From page 75... ...
Finally, by substituting biomass-derived fuels, hydrogen, or electricity for petrolewm-based fuels in personal transportation vehicles, carbon emissions might be reduced to about 100 MTC, or about 20 percent of what they might be without aggressive efficiency improvements and fuel switching. Further significant reductions could be accomplished only by applying new fuels such as methane and hydrogen to aircraft.
|
From page 76... ...
lo id H ~0 o Cal o 0 a C
|
From page 77... ...
; · development of innovative vehicle components and concepts to understand the major technological and engineering issues they present and to permit preliminary assessments of their potential value; and · studies to assess the likely effectiveness of policies to effect changes in the transportation systems of U.S. cities and regions that would lead to reductions in GHG emissions in this sector.
|
From page 78... ...
onboard photovoltaics for accessory power; · engine systems to achieve better integration of engine, transmission, and ancillary components to improve part-load fuel economy; · optimization of engines and vehicles, for alternative fuels, including work on materials compatibility with methanol and ethanol; · vehicle system studies to address such issues as construction of crash-worthy cars of light structural material, control of emissions in superefficient engines, hybrid configurations that permit continuous full-load operation of internal combustion engines; and · new innovative systems approaches to major transportation problems (e.g., electrified highways to couple, inductively or otherwise, electric vehicles to external sources of energy)
|
From page 79... ...
An Assessment of DOE Transportation Research The transportation R&D program, under DOE's Office of Conservation, includes the following programs that are pertinent to GHG emissions:, Program Automotive gas turbine Low heat rejection diesel Electric vehicle battery R&D Electric vehicle propulsion Advanced materials Total FY 1990 Funding (millions of current $) $12 5 8 6 $46 In the committee's estimation, the automotive gas turbine engine is unlikely to become the power plant of choice for cars or trucks, unless (in the case of heavy trucks)
|
From page 80... ...
Advanced materials research, including ceramics, can enhance energy efficiency of a number of applications and is endorsed by the committee.
|
From page 81... ...
250 250 Other 330 320 20 670 1310 Total commercial 2390 1050 2590 20 6,050 11,110 Total residential and 6950 commercial 2570 5530 aEstimates from various sources for energy use in 1985-1988.49~ 91C 15,960 26,900 bTotal primary is the stem of oil, gas, and other energy use together with three times electric energy use. CTotal primary is calculated for residential above except for gas use in cogeneration, which is assumed to displace an equal amount of primary energy.
|
From page 82... ...
Other 4.8 15.5 Total commercial 55.9 125.8 Total residential and commercial 152.9 268.6 Calculation based on Table 4-7. CO2 emissions expressed as millions of metric tons of carbon (MTC)
|
From page 83... ...
Technology/Practice Energy Conversion Technologies High-efficiency gas heating Advanced heat pumps High-efficiency cooling High-efficiency hot water Solar hot water Solar photovoltaics Co gene rat ion Energy storage Commercial refrigeration Building Components and Systems Controls Advanced windows High-efficiency lighting Efficient residential appliances Efficient office equipment Insulation Construe tion materials Design/Practice 2 1 2 2 Practice: data, construction, o&Mb 3 Community design Design for manufacturing, assembly and operation Res idential Commerc ial Near Long Near Long Term Term Term Term 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 3 - 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 a Rating scale is as follows: 1 ~ can make some contribution to GHG reduction, 2 ~ can make considerable contribution to GHG reduction, 3 ~ can make substantial contribution to GHG reduction. b O&M, operation and maintenance 83
|
From page 84... ...
New technology for building envelopes will have little impact on the energy service demands of existing commercial buildings. However, the committee estimates that energy use can be reduced by at least 10 percent through improved operating procedures in buildings, such as optimal use and control of HVAC equipment, lighting, and other office equipment.
|
From page 85... ...
Increased Efficiency of Energy Conversion All of the service demands of the building sector are supplied by energy conversion devices, such as furnaces, air conditioners, or light bulbs. In the area of residential space heating, technology is already available to significantly improve average heating efficiencies, and R&D is under way that can lead to even greater improvements.
|
From page 86... ...
SPF is equivalent to efficiency in simple combustion furnaces but can be much higher in heat pumps that extract energy from the outdoor air. National Appliance Energy Conservation Act of 1987.
|
From page 87... ...
The result would push the national average gas furnace efficiency to 85 percent with a 35 percent energy savings compared to the current mix. Successful introduction of gas heat pumps would have even greater effects.
|
From page 88... ...
If gas-fired cogeneration were successfully installed in all of these potential applications, GHG emissions for the commercial building sector would be cut by 6 percent. TABLE 4-11 Space Cooling Equipment SPFa Technology Current Mix Today's Best Best Prototype Electric air conditioner Electric heat plump Commercial electric chiller Gas air conditioner Gas heat pump Gas absorption chiller Gas engine chiller Gas engine chiller ~ absorption 2.2 2.4 3.0 0.5 NA 0.9 NA NA 3.0 4.5 5.0 0.6 1.1 1.0 1.5 1.9 3.6 5.5 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.7 2.0 NA, not available.
|
From page 89... ...
4, Replacement of onehalf of these with 90 percent efficient gas water heaters would reduce GHG emissions from residential water heating by 25 percent. GHG emissions are also reduced by substitution of gas for oil.
|
From page 90... ...
Percent Reductionb in CO2 Near Term Long Term Reduce energy service demand Retrofit existing homes 2.9 0.9 Advanced construction of new buildings 5.6 24.7 Improved building operating practice 4.5 4.5 Increase equipment efficiency H~gh-efficiency heating and heat pumps 8.7 17.8 Cogeneration 1.4 6.9 High-efficiency lighting 5.9 5.9 Use alternate fuels Replace half of oil heat with gas 3.1 3.1 10% penetration of solar photovoltaics NAC 6.9 Gas/solar water heating 1.7 2.5 Impact of exiles 30.0 60.0 Other impacts 25% Savings in other areas 7.0 NAC 50% Savings in other areas NAC 14.0 Total potential impact 37.0 74.0 aEstimates based on analysis in this study by the Buildings Panel. bPercent reduction from total CO2 emissions ~ including those due to primary electric generation)
|
From page 91... ...
As Table 4-9 indicated, highefficiency gas heating, high-effic~ency water heating, and cogeneration are expected to provide the greatest impact on reducing GHGs in the near term. While the greatest impacts will result from the application of technologies already developed and commercially available, this does not eliminate the need for R&D that further improves efficiency or is specifically targeted to the reduction of GHG emissions.
|
From page 92... ...
Perhaps the greatest near-term reductions in GHG emissions can be achieved through improved operating practices. Although this area must be addressed primarily through various implementation approaches, several areas of R&D can have significant impact.
|
From page 93... ...
Building Components and Systems. R&D on building components and systems promises maj or impact on reducing GHG emissions from the buildings sector in the long term.
|
From page 94... ...
These programs led to the commercial introduction of such products as the heat pump water heater, solid-state ballasts, compact fluorescent bulbs, reflective window films, and advanced motor compressors. DOE also funded a vigorous solar energy research program that affected the building sector.
|
From page 95... ...
For building-related energy conservation measures across the entire federal spectrum, $51.7 million is allocated or 1.4 percent of the federal building energy bill. To help reduce its energy use, the government has established a coordinating program called the Federal Energy Management Program.
|
From page 96... ...
These actions need to be followed for both the near- and long-term time frames to achieve the GHG emissions reduction potential of the buildings sector by ensuring the adoption of the technologies that result from the R&D programs recommended above. Make Energy Service Markets Work If energy were sold as a service rather than as a commodity, many problems could be overcome.
|
From page 97... ...
Currently they do not have the incentives that would lead to reduced energy use and reduced GHG emissions. However, the committee notes that a few utility commissions in different areas of the country are beginning to address this problem.
|
From page 98... ...
Building materials and practices have not generally been a part of international commodity transactions. A set of internationally agreed-to practices for building construction that minimize GHG emissions would serve to expand the markets and encourage increased private sector investment.
|
From page 99... ...
Such miscellaneous sources of CO; are responsible for 5 to 10 percent of the industrial total, with combustion of fossil fuels responsible for over 90 percent. Maj or Targets for Attention The efficiency of energy use in industry can be improved and the form of energy used can be altered to reduce GHG emissions with existing technology, but both come at a cost.
|
From page 100... ...
Options open to industry to reduce GHG emissions fall into four areas: · improvement of energy efficiency, · fuel switching, recycling of materials, and use of biomass-derived fuels and feedstocks. Adoption of these options is subject both to the availability of technology and to economic factors.
|
From page 101... ...
The baseline of industrial energy efficiency improvement can be placed in perspective by considering the period 1958-1971, when energy prices were low and even falling. In that period fossil fuel intensities declined about 1.2 percent per year as a result of ongoing technical changes.
|
From page 102... ...
A substantial increase in energy efficiency will be achieved over the next 30 years through the adoption of currently available technology and the incorporation of results of the R&D efforts cited above (Table 4-14~. Fuel Switching Fuel switching can lead to reduction of GHG emissions from selected industrial processes, but implementation depends on relative price (e.g., of electricity and natural gas)
|
From page 103... ...
Glass Industry: An Energy Perspective, April 1988) A 35 percent reduction in total energy use per unit of production.
|
From page 104... ...
These R&D topics are the subject of considerable effort by the oil and gas industry, including the Gas Research Institute. Second, basic, longer-range research in geosciences should be pursued to examine other potentially economical gas resources to further extend the potential for natural gas as a transition fuel.
|
From page 105... ...
Potential Impacts. If it is assumed that all fossil fuels burned by manufacturers could be replaced by electricity and that all electricity is generated using nonfossil primary energy resources, about 40 percent of total current U.S.
|
From page 106... ...
· Develop new or improved processes to economically utilize a larger fraction of industrial waste materials. · Establish standards for marking or otherwise labeling containers and container material to facilitate efficient separation.
|
From page 107... ...
. Continue and enhance studies on improved conversion of biomass, especially wood derived cellulose and hemicellulose, to ethanol and other products; improved anaerobic digestion of farm and municipal wastes to produce methane; and selection of species that provide high yields of dry biomass and have low energy requirements during processing.
|
From page 108... ...
· Develop plants incorporating the knowledge gained from the steps outlined above. Potential Impacts.
|
From page 109... ...
Substantial R&D is needed to verify the biomass option, and electrical generating capacity using non-fossil fuels cannot be readily and cost-effectively expanded-hence, electrification and biomass are long-term options. Energy Efficiency Improvements · Continued energy-efficiency improvements offer a maj or opportunity for reduct' on in CO: emissions.
|
From page 110... ...
In addition, international agreements could be negotiated for the recovery and use of gas that Is flared and vented. Recycling of Materials Increased recycling offers a major opportunity for increasing energy efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions.
|
From page 111... ...
Since front-end separation requires extra effort on the part of the consumer or scrap-metal dealer, this effort may have to be encouraged through incentives or penalties imposed through legislation. In the area of industrial waste, there is high potential for the establishment of industries that use the waste of other industries to produce useful products, without the need for mining and comminut~on, both of which use substantial energy.
|
From page 112... ...
These three areas are central to industry' s opportunity to reduce GHG emissions. Assessing the effectiveness of these federal R&D programs should take into account that the results of basic research are distant in time; frequently, the spark that led to invention, innovation, and application is forgotten at the time of application.
|
From page 113... ...
Recycling Is being addressed in modestly funded projects on separation systems and industrial waste utilization. A longer and more comprehensive program in these two areas is required to develop technologies to make recycling a viable option.
|
From page 114... ...
On a worldwide basis, biomass is already a significant source of energy. Although less than ~ percent of the annual biomass growth is used for energy, it provides 15 percent of total primary energy consumption.
|
From page 115... ...
Perhaps more important is the expectation of genetic improvements in the next 10 to 40 years. Currently, biomass captures only 0.1 percent of the average incident solar energy, which suggests the enormous potential for improvement.
|
From page 116... ...
Most of the current work at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Gas Research Institute, and Solar Energy Research Institute has focused on other sources, such as glucose from cellulose and xylose from hemicellulose. Considerable progress has been made in lowering costs for this route, increasing raw material yields, and improving conversion processes.
|
From page 117... ...
, "Expanding Roles for Gas Turbines In Power Generation," in Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies, and Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press, Lund, Sweden, 1989.
|
From page 118... ...
J McGroff, presentation to the National Research Council Committee on Alternative Energy Research and Development Strategies, October 5-7, 1989.
|
From page 119... ...
R Verderber, "Advanced Lighting Technologies Products," Strategies for Reducing Natural Gas, Electric and Oil Costs, in Proceedings of the 12th World Energy_Engineering Congress, Atlanta, Gal, 1989.
|
From page 120... ...
A L' ncoln, "Refrigeration Systems Enhancement Thru Evaporative Cooling, " Strategies for Reducing Natural Gas, Electric and Oil Costs, in Proceedings of the 12th World Energy Engineering Congress, Atlanta, Gal, 1989.
|
From page 121... ...
, presentation to Industry Panel, National Research Council Committee on Alternative Energy Research and Development Strategies, November 30, 1989.
|
From page 122... ...
J Van Hook, presentation to Industry Panel, National Research Council Committee on Alternative Energy Research and Development Strategies, November 9, 1989.
|
From page 123... ...
B Lindsay, "Development of a Gas Engine Driven Rooftop Air Conditioning Unit for the Commercial Market, 1989," Strategies for Reducing Natural Gas, Electric and Oil Costs, in Proceedings of the 12th World Energy Engineering Congress, Atlanta, Gal, 1989.
|
From page 124... ...
Y., et al., "Development of a High-Efficiency, Small-to-Medium-S'zed Gas Absorption Chiller/Heater," in Proceedings of the 1989 International Gas Research Conference, Vol. II: Residential & Commercial Utilization, Tokyo, Japan, November 6-9, 1989.
|
From page 125... ...
Strategies for Reducing Natural Gas, Electric and Oil Costs, In Proceedings of the lath World Energy Engineering Congress, Atlanta, Gal, 1989. Odgen, J
|
From page 126... ...
for New Commercial Construction, Strategies for Reducing Natural Gas, Electric and Oil Costs, in Proceedings of the 12th World Energy Engineering Congress, 1989. United Kingdom Denartment of Enerov.
|
From page 127... ...
~ ~ ~ _ . _ Engineering an ~trategles For Reducing Natural Gas, Electric and Oil Costs," in Proceedings of the 12th World Energy Engineering Congress, Atlanta, Gal, 1989.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.