Automotive Fuel Economy How Far Can We Go? (1992) / Chapter Skim
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APPENDIXES
APPENDIXES
Pages 191-254
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From page 191... ...
produced for the United States market in the next decade. The study has been requested by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration to ascertain the potential and prospects to improve the fuel economy of new vehicles, while meeting existing and pending environmental and safety standards for the vehicles.
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In Phase 1, the Committee will rely primarily on mechanisms such as the following to expeditiously obtain information pertinent to the study: (a) The Committee will invite structured presentations, to be delivered at committee meetings and in a workshop forum, from domestic and foreign automobile manufacturers and their suppliers; from representatives of qualified organizations closely involved with but functioning outside of the automotive industry per se; from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and its contractors and subcontractors as appropriate; and from other relevant parties (individuals, firms and other entities in the private sector, and government agencies)
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From page 193... ...
For the purposes of evaluation, the Committee watt consider defining a baseline with vehicle size, size mix, equipment and performance consistent with the 1990 mode} year new cars and light trucks sold in the United States. Measures of fuel economy watt be based on the EPA Test Cycle, and assumptions regarding future automotive fuel prices may be based on projections made by the Department of Energy and other sources of such projections available in the public domain.
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will be delivered by the National Research Council to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration by June 30, 1991.
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A manuscript of this report (after it has been subjected to the National Research Council review process) waif be delivered by the National Research Council to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration by March al, 1992.
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.. ~ U1111111~ WlLI1 esumales or Ine market snares tor the various technologies by size class and by import versus domestic manufacture, for passenger cars and light trucks.
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From page 197... ...
The cost estimates are summarized in Table B-2. ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES Under the category of engine technologies in Table B-1 are included those technologies that address the thermodynamic efficiency of combustion, internal engine friction, and pumping losses, as well as energy used by essential engine accessories, such as oil pumps and alternators, and nonessential accessories, such as air-conditioners and power steering.
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From page 199... ...
1 1 1 PUBL SYSTEMS Throttle-body fuel injection Carburetor 42 70 70 65 65 65 Multipoint fuel injection Carburetor 90 134 150 215 215 215 VALVE TRAM Overhead camshaft Overhead valve 110 160 200 400 400 400 4 valves per cylinder 2 valves 140 180 225 400 400 400 Variable valve timing Fixed timing 140 200 267 100 100 100 REDUCED NUMBER OF CYLINDERS [al ~ - - - ~ J 4-cyl~nder 6-cylinder 0 (300)
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From page 200... ...
concur with the high end of this range (2.0 percent) for the fuel economy effect of low-tension piston rings, closer machining tolerances for pistons, cylinders and bearing surfaces, and use of lightweight pistons.3 The latter sources point out that the use of lightweight valves and ceramic pistons, titanium valve springs, lightweight composite connecting rods, and two rather than three piston rings, together with oilpump and crankshaft modifications, could reduce engine friction by another 10 percent, for another 2 percent fuel economy benefit.
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From page 201... ...
Ike high and uncertain costs of these technologies support the committee's view that variable-speed drives are not proven technology. Deceleration Fuel Restriction Since the momentum of the vehicle actually drives the engine during deceleration, it is possible to restrict the fuel input sharply with no effect on operation.
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From page 202... ...
In 1975, 95 percent of all passenger cars and 99.9 percent of all light trucks sold in the United States used carburetors. By the 1991 model year the situation was completely reversed: 99.7 percent of all cars and 98.!
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Both TB! and MFT systems are applicable to all passenger cars and light trucks with spark-ignition engine.
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From page 204... ...
Still greater improvements can be achieved by using variable valve timing and lift control to take advantage of the 4-valve configuration (see below)
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A variety of approaches can be taken to variable valve timing. Honda's lean , ~ ~ "7 burn VTEC-E engine is an example of a 4-valve, variable valve control engine optimized for fuel economy.4 The VTEC-E achieves 15 percent higher torque at 2,000 rpm, and generally higher torque across the range of low rpm, than an equivalent Honda non-VTEC, 4-valve engine (EEA' 199 1a; Honda Motor Company, 1991~.
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From page 206... ...
The Honda Civic VXs use other fuel-sav~ng features, including a 5 percent reduction in weight compared with the DX, reduced tire rolling resistance, reduced aerodynamic drag (about 3 percent) , and changes in axle and gear ratios to take advantage of the VTEC's better torque curve (American Honda Motor Company, 1991; Duleep, 1991~.
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From page 207... ...
engine of equivalent displacement could reduce friction by 15 percent, resulting in a 3 percent fuel economy benefit. EEA also suggests a I.6 to 3.0 percent fuel economy gain in mown" from a V-8 to a V-6.
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and presence low-rpm torque (variable valve timing and lift control)
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Accommodating a lo-speed automatic transmission in m~nicompact and subcompact cars would be very difficult. Thus, in this analysis, the committee limited m~n~compact and subcompact cars and light trucks to 4-speed automatics (or continuously variable transmissions, see below)
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Estimates for gains using proven technology in passenger cars are much lower.
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From page 211... ...
. Weight reductions of this magnitude would increase fuel economy by 6.6 to 12.5 percent.
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That is, a 10 percent weight reduction yields a 5 percent fuel economy increase. Holding performance constant, reduced vehicle weight allows reduced engine power and size, which adds to the fuel economy benefit of direct weight reduction.
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EEA (1991a) estimates that a 10 percent reduction in tire rolling resistance produces a 2 percent fuel economy benefit over the EPA test cycle.
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This is true whether performance is measured in acceleration time or horsepower-to-weight ratios (Heavenrich et al., 1991~. Since 1987, 0 to 60 mph times have dropped 11 percent for passenger cars and light trucks.
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Presented to the Technology Subgroup, Committee on Fuel Economy of Automobiles and Light Trucks, Detroit, Mich., July 31. Ford Motor Company.
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1991. Potential for Improved Fuel Economy in Passenger Cars and Light Trucks.
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A lean-burn engine is designed and operated so that some excess air over and above that needed for complete combustion is introduced into the combustion chambers. The term lean burn is also sometimes used to describe an engine in which exhaust gases, rather than excess air, are used to dilute the air/fuel mixture.
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From page 218... ...
. SOURCE: Adapted from Ford Motor Company (1991~.
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From page 219... ...
As a consequence, the 49-state version has a 44 percent fuel economy increase while the California version has a 34 percent increase. The Honda Civic VE with VTEC-E engine differs from the standard Honda Civic not only in the use of lean-burn technology but also in use of variable valve timing; an overall 5 percent weight reduction; improved aerodynamics; reduced rolling resistance through the use of special tires, bearings, and seals; reduced accessory load through the use of a "smart" alternator; reduced engine friction; and a higher rear-axIe ratio made possible by the increased torque of the variable-valve-tim~ng system.
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From page 220... ...
'Direct-injection" diesel engines, which are almost universally used in heavy-duty trucks, are some 12 to 15 percent more efficient than divided-chamber diesel engines. Because they exhibit quieter combustion and greater rpm flexibility, almost all diesels used in passenger cars are of divided-chamber design.
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From page 221... ...
Further, for the diesel there is a trade-off between particulates and NOx -- particulates can be lowered, but at the expense of increased NOX- Thus, it is doubtful whether the diesel engine can meet future emissions requirements, except possibly Tier ~ standards. Development of a lean NOX catalyst would help meet future emissions standards, but such a catalyst would have to meet different requirements from the lean NOX catalyst needed for lean-burn gasoline engines.
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From page 222... ...
The 1986 Orbital X 1.2L L3 engine features crankcase scavenging, a spool-type exhaust-port control valve to reduce short circuiting of fresh charge at light loads and idle as well as to improve low-speed torque, and pneumatic fuel injection directly into the cylinder.
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From page 223... ...
Covens argues that, with extensive use of composites and plastics, curb weights of 1,000 to 1,400 pounds could be achieved at 4C^. Amann, presentation at the workshop of the Committee on Fuel Economy of Automobiles and Light Trucks, Irvine, Calif., July 8-12 (see Appendix F)
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From page 225... ...
6A. Lovins, presentation at the workshop of the Committee on Fuel Economy of Automobiles and Light Trucks, Irvine, Calif., July 8-12, 1991.
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Presented to the Technology Subgroup, Committee on Fuel Economy of Automobiles and Light Trucks, Dearborn, Mich., September 6. Levin, D.P.
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To examine this question, the committee constructed a simplified mode} of the dependence of total fleet fatality risk on the size composition of the fleet. The mode} is based on a simplified fleet mix of small, medium, and large cars and on relative risk factors for two-car collisions that are broadly consistent with those found in the literature, but that are also greatly simplified.
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Consequently, these analyses are relevant for about 11 percent of all motor vehicle fatalities. The relative fatality risks to the occupants of small, medium, and large cars in twocar collisions that were incorporated in the mode} are shown in the matrix in Table Dot.
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1/9 1/9 1/9 Large (1/3) 1/9 1/9 1/9 TABLE D-3 Base Fleet Fatality Indices '~it" Car Size '~it By" Car Size Small Medium Large Small 2 2 4 Medium 3/9 12/9 12/9 Large 1/9 2/9 8/9 Total Fatality Index = 12.22
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From page 230... ...
might feature 40 percent small cars, 50 percent medium, and 10 percent large ones. In this case, the total fleet fatality index increases by about ~ percent, to 12.34, and total fatalities grow by the same percentage, or by 48 deaths.
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Because substantial numbers of fatalities occur in these categories, including them could significantly affect the estimates of the impact of downsizing on total fatalities. Because of the complexities of the dependence of the total motor vehicle fatality risk on the fleet size mix, the committee urges further examination of these relationships from the societal perspective using real-worId data.
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. Column 6 of Table E-1 shows the average percentage improvement in fuel economy arising from increased use of each technology in subcompact cars, calculated as the product of columns 1 and 5.
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From page 233... ...
Multipoint fug inaction 5.0 91 58.0 100.0 42.0 2.100 41.56 Valve Train O`rcrhcad camshaft 3.0 111 43.7 97.1 53.4 1.602 64.52 4 valves per cylinder 5.0 141 36.3 97.1 60.8 3.040 93.04 Variable valve timing 6.0 142 0.0 97.1 97.1 5.826 149.20 Number of Cylinders [e] Reminder redesign 17.0 240 0.0 2.9 2.9 .493 7.55 ~cylu~der redesign 17.0 442 0.0 0.0 0.0 .000 0.00 Transmission Technologies Torque convertor lockup 3.0 50 45.5 66.7 21.2 .635 1 1.47 Electric transmission control 0.5 24 0.0 66.7 66.7 .333 17.35 0spoed automatic 4.5 225 16.8 0.0 -16.8 - .756 (40.96)
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From page 234... ...
0.00 30.59 Advanced lubricants 0.157 2.18 0.0720 2.18 30.75 Roller cam followers 0.445 12.46 0.0357 14.64 31.19 Engine redesign 0.155 7.55 0.0205 22.19 31.35 Friction reduction 0.551 28.80 0.0191 50.99 31.90 Aerodynamics 0.590 35.43 0.0167 86.41 32.49 Advanced Ares 0.314 19.51 0.0161 105.93 32.80 Weight reduction 2.072 149.33 0.0139 255.26 34.87 Fuel system 0.332 25.41 0.0131 280.67 35.21 Variable valve timing 1.829 149.20 0.0123 429.87 37.03 Front-wheel drive 0.185 15.35 0.0121 445.22 37.22 Accessories 0.157 13.01 0.0121 458.23 37.38 4 valves per cylinder 0.955 93.04 0.0103 551.27 38.33 Valve system 0.503 64.52 0.0078 615.79 38.83 Transmissions 1.511 222.73 0.0069 838.52 40.35 Electric Dower steering 0.314 48.78 0.0064 887.30 40.66 [a] Since cost is zero, cost-effectiveness is very large.
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FIGURE E-2 Calculation of fuel economy costs for subcompact cars (data from Table E-4)
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From page 236... ...
H) ~(A Engine Technologies General Roller cam fdlowers 1.7 65 29.2 100.0 70.8 1.168 48.02 Friction reduction, -10% 2.0 60 12.3 100.0 87.7 1.754 52.62 Accc~ory improwomcat 0.7 200 0.0 lQO.O 100.0 .700 200.00 Dcccleration foci ~ric8On 1.0 S 58.0 100.0 42.0 .420 2.10 Compression ratio, +.5 2.0 1 0.0 100.0 100.0 2.000 1.00 Fuel Systems Throw - bodyfu~injoction 2.8 65 34.8 0.0 -34.8 -.905 `22.62' MultipoiDt fuel injection 4.6 215 58.0 100.0 42.0 1.932 90.30 Valve Train Overhead camshaft 2.5 400 43.7 97.1 53.4 1.335 213.60 4vdves per cylinder 3.0 400 36.3 97.1 60.8 1.824 243.20 Vanablc valve timing 2.6 100 0.0 97.1 97.1 2.525 97.10 Number of Cylinders [I Cylinder redesign 8.1 600 0.0 2.9 2.9 .235 17.40 6~1indcr redesign 9.1 650 0.0 0.0 0.0 .000 0.00 Transmission Technologies Torque converter lockup 2.0 56 45.5 66.7 21.2 .423 11.85 Electric torsion control 0.5 122 0.0 66.7 66.7 .333 81.33 - speed automatic 2.8 230 16.8 0.0 -16.8 - .470 (38.64)
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From page 237... ...
(mpg) Base - - 0.00 30.46 Compression ratio 0.628 1 0.628 1.00 31.09 Deceleration fuel restriction 0.132 2.1 0.0629 3.10 31.22 Advanced lubricants 0.094 3 0.0313 6.10 31.31 Advanced tires 0.314 20 0.0157 26.10 31.63 Aerodynamics 0.616 49.02 0.0126 75.12 32.24 Friction reduction 0.551 52.62 0.0105 127.74 32.79 Variable valve timing 0.793 97.1 0.0082 224.84 33.59 Roller cam followers 0.367 46.02 0.0080 270.86 33.95 Electric power steering 0.440 61 0.0072 331.86 34.39 Front-wheel drive 0.009 1.53 0.0059 333.39 34.40 Fuel system 0.323 67.68 0.0048 401.07 34.72 Engine redesign 0.074 17.4 0.0043 418.47 34.80 Weight reduction 1.570 470 0.0033 888.47 36.37 4 valves per cylinder 0.573 243.2 0.0024 1,131.87 36.94 Transmissions 0.957 481.21 0.0020 1,612.89 37.90 Valve system 0.419 213.60 0.0020 1,826.49 38.32 Accessories 0.220 200 0.0011 2,026.49 38.54 NOTE: Technologies are listed in order of decreasing cost-effectiveness.
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From page 238... ...
1991. Potential for Improved Fuel Economy in Passenger Cars and Light Trucks.
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From page 239... ...
O'Donnell, Department of Transportation Motor Vehicle Fuel Economy: A NHTSA Perspective ferry R Curry, Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Rationale for Senate Bill S.279 and Expectations for the NAS Study Senator Richard H
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From page 240... ...
U.S. Safety Regulations for New Cars and Light Trucks Donald Bischoff, Associate Administrator for Plans and Policy, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Barry FeIrice, Associate Administrator for Rulemaking, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Automotive Fuel Economy & Safely Stephen Oesch, General Counsel, Insurance Institute for Highway Safety Clarence DitIow, Executive Director, Center for Auto Safety Future Emission Requirements Karl Heliman, Environmental Protection Agency
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From page 241... ...
HolIasch, General Motors Corporation Fuels and Lubricants: Lubricants and Engine Friction Reduction David Hoult, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Trends in Fuel Composition and Impact on Fuel Economy and Emissions Joe Colucci, General Motors Corporation Materials Considerations in Vehicle Design and Operation: David Parker, Aluminum Association David SchIendorf, ALCOA Ronald McClure, ALCOA Alan Seeds, Alcan Aluminum Corporation Randy Suess, Dow Chemical Company Peter Peterson, U.S. Steel Corporation CONCEPT CARS AND PROTOTYPES Advanced Light Vehicle Concepts Amory Lovins, Rocky Mountain Institute Prototypes and "Best in the World Cars": Overview and Lessons Learned Deborah Blev~ss, International Institute for Energy Conservation
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From page 242... ...
I Campbell, University of North Carolina Vehicle Downsizing versus Vehicle Downweighting: Implications for Safety Charles Kahane and Terry Klein, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Potential Improvements in Occupant Packaging to Offset Vehicle Weight Reduction Donald Friedman, Liability Research, Inc.
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From page 243... ...
Automotive Industry Perspective: Kelly Brown, Ford Motor Company Gregory Dana, Association of International Automobile Manufacturers Richard Penna, Toyota Motor Corporation ECONOMIC AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS IN IMPROVING FUEL ECONOMY Review of Regulatory Options at the Federal and State Levels Ralph Cavanagh, Natural Resources Defense Council Regulations and Market Forces Gary R Fauth, Charles River Associates Fuel Economy: A Customer's Viewpoint Robert Leone, Boston University Cost-Effectiveness of Increased Fuel Economy John DeCicco, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND DEMAND FOR CARS Behavioral Studies and Consumer Demand WiTIet Kempton, Princeton University Consumer Behavior and New Car Purchase Steve Barnett, Nissan North America
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From page 244... ...
Fred Smith, Competitive Enterprise Institute Resources, Motivation, and Lead Time Tom Feaheny, Consultant A Concept to Improve the Fuel Economy of the Nation's Motor Vehicles Patrick Raher, Mercedes-Benz Corporation LIGHT TRUCK AND VAN POLICY Basis for Current Regulations on Fuel Economy and Safety of Light Trucks and Vans Orron Kee, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Current Purchase and Use Patterns of Light Trucks and Vans William Bostic, U.S. Department of Commerce Unique Fuel Economy Considerations for Light Trucks and Vans vis-av~s Passenger Cars James Englehart, Ford Motor Company Yoichiro Kaneuchi, Nissan Motor Company, Ltd., of Japan LATE PAPER Parallels Between U.S.
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From page 245... ...
I Campbell, University of North Carolina Clarence DitIow, Center for Auto Safety Mark Edwards, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Charles Kahane, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Terry Klein, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Robert Shelton, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 5.
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From page 246... ...
246 Ford Motor Company AlIan Gilmour Dan Ahrns Chris Aliapoulis Bob Bacigalupi Dick Baker Peter Beardmore Chinu Bhavsar Kelly Brown km Endress Haren Gandhi Ed Hagenlocker Bob Himes Mike Jordan Thomas Kenney Ken Kohrs David Kulp John LaFond Pete Pestillo Helen Petrauskas Jeff Pharris Norm Postma Bill QuinIan Bob Rankin Bob RoethIer Al Simko General Motors Corporation Robert Stempe} Jack Armstrong Lewis Dale Harry Foster Nicholas Gallopoulos Ronald Haas Livonia Plant Donald Runkle Leon SkudIarek Thomas Stephens Gerald Stofflet Tom Young Honda E Amito Toni Harrington Takefumi Hosaka H
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From page 247... ...
Charles River Associates David Montgomery Chrysler Corporation Van Bussmann Tom Gage Al Slechter Ford Motor Company AlIan D Gilmour Kelly Brown Bobbi KoehIer-Gaunt Michael Jordan Peter Pestillo Helen Petrauskas Susan Shackson Greg Smith Martin Zimmerman General Motors Corporation Lewis Dale Michael DiGiovann~ George Eads Harry Foster Stephen O'Toole Gerald Stoffiet S
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From page 248... ...
Toyota Motor Corporation Saburo Inui Tadao Mitsuta Ryuzo Oshita Richard Penna Mitsubishi Yoshiaki Dann Steve Sinkez General Motors lack Benson Lewis Dale Samuel Leonard Stephen O'Toole Gerald StoffIet Richard Taylor Robert Wiltse Ford Motor Company Kelly Brown Richard Baker Haren Gandhi Helen Petrauskas Volkswagen of America Leonard Kata Karl Heinz-Neumann Mercedes-Benz Corporation Klaus Drex] William Kurtz Patrick Raher
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From page 249... ...
Toyota Motor Corporation Charles Ing Saburo Inui Tetsushi Itch Richard Penna Kazuko Sherman Junzo Shim~zu Katsum~ Suzuki General Motors Corporation George Eads William Ball Harry Foster James Johnston Gerald Stofflet Honda E Amito Toni Harrington Ford Motor Company Kelly Brown AlIan Gilmour Susan Sheckson Martin Zimmerman Chrysler Corporation Ronald Boltz Van Bussmann Thomas Gage Robert Liberatore Natural Resources Defense Council Ralph Cavanagh 13.
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From page 250... ...
250 14. Technology Subgroup Meeting, November 22, 1991, Washington, D.C.
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From page 251... ...
APPENDIX G BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF COMMITTEE MEMBERS Committee on Fuel Economy of Automobiles and Light Trucks Energy Engineering Board National Research Council Richard A Meserve (chairman)
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From page 252... ...
automotive industry. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Motor Vehicles and served as a consultant to the Department of Transportation, Department of Energy, and the
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From page 253... ...
G Murray Mackay is head of the Accident Research Unit, Automotive Engineering Center, University of Birmingham, England, where he has been a reader in traffic safety.
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From page 254... ...
She chairs the NRC's Transportation Research Board Council on Intergroup Resources and is a member of their Research Technology and Coordinating Committee for the Federal Highway Administration and committees on Planning and Administration of Transportation Safety; Motor Vehicle Size and Weight; and Alcohol, Other Drugs and Transportation. She is ~ r,~v~h~lnai~t and holds a Ph.D.
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